


A COURSE IN 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 
MECHANICAL DRAWING 



WHITMORE 



A COURSE IN 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 
MECHANICAL DRAWING 



BY 



JAMES B. WHITMORE 



Superintendent of Drawing and Shop Courses in the West Technical High School, Cleveland, O. 
Formerly Head of Department of Drawing and Architectual Engineering 

Pennsylvania State College 




THE CHAMPLIN PRESS 
COLUMBUS, OHIO 

1912 



Copyright 191 1. 
Copyright 1912. 

By 

James B. Whitmore 



©CI.A328121- 



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PREFACE 



These notes are especially designed to meet the needs of 
the Department of Drawing and Architectural Engineering of 
the Pennsylvania State College, for a comprehensive course 
in the principles of Mechanical Drawing. In this subject, the 
large number of students which each instructor in the depart- 
ment is required to handle, prevents, to a large extent, the 
individual instruction which should supplement a text-book, 
if ultimate success is to be achieved. This difficulty is met, 
in the present instance, by outlining in detail, the fundamental 
steps necessary to perform each prescribed operation. Out- 
lining the method of procedure also overcomes the difficulty 



experienced by the average student in his attempt to gain 
in speed, by eliminating the large amount of time which he 
wastes in not going about his work in a systematic manner. 

The author desires to express his thanks to Messrs. G. 
D. Barbey, H. M. Glazier, and W. P. Loomis, for much valua- 
ble help with the text. He also wishes to express his obliga- 
tions to Theo. Alteneder & Co. and P. Weber & Co. for most 
of the instrument cuts in Chapter I. 

J. B. W. 
State College, Pa. 
Sept. 1, 1911. 



CHAPTER I. 
SELECTION OF DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 



Choice of Instruments. 

The Quality of the drawing instruments, used by the stu- 
dent or professional man, determines, to a large extent the 
form, accuracy, speed, and the ultimate success of his work. 
The ease with Avhich the student progresses to perfection in 
the manual dexterity of the draftsman's art, depends entirely 
upon the quality of his instruments as to material, design, con- 
struction, and finish. The ordinary student can turn out excel- 
lent drawings with the best of instruments but it takes the 
exceptional student to turn out the same kind of work with 
poor instruments. Since the engineering student will continue 
to make use of his drawing instruments thruout his active 
professional career, their first cost is secondary in comparison 
to their quality. The quality of the instruments should there- 
fore be such that they will retain all of their original perfection 
thruout a lifetime of hard usage. It is true economy for the 
student to pay the first cost for perfection in these qualities, 
providing he is certain that he is obtaining them. The original 
investment of the student in drawing instruments, if wisely 
made, will never have to be duplicated. 

While it is perhaps unnecessary to call the attention of 
professional draftsmen to the importance and advantage of 
using first class instruments, it is desirable, however, to warn 
the student, the apprentice, and the young engineer, against 
the purchase of cheap instruments. As the essential qualities 
of first class instruments are visible only to those experienced 
in their purchase, it is easy, for unscrupulous manufacturers 
to slight the finer details and turn out very poor instruments 



which have every appearance of being first class. Such in- 
struments will not stand up under even ordinary usage. To 
the student they will prove a constant source of vexation 
and delay in the execution of his work. The prospective buyer 
is induced to invest in these "just as good" kind of instru- 
ments on the strength of the large discounts offered, which, 
while making them appear as a desirable purchase, really 
enables the dealer to make more on their sale than he would 
on the sale of first quality instruments. 

The following bulletin has been prepared, by the Depart- 
ment of Drawing, to set forth clearly the specifications con- 
cerning the purchase and use of drawing instruments by stu- 
dents in the several departments of the School of Engineering, 
Avhieh specifications were adopted by the Faculty of the School 
of Engineering, July, 1909. 

Kinds of Instruments Acceptable. 

The various brands of instruments which are recognized 
by the Faculty of this school are : 

Alteneder, manufactured by T. Alteneder & Son 

Gem Union, manufactured by E. Dietzgen & Co. 

Paragon, manufactured by Keuffel & Esser Co. 

Kern, manufactured by Kern & Co. 

Richter, manufactured by Richter. 

Riefler, manufactured by Riefler. 

Key Brand, manufactured by Keuffel & Esser Co. 

799A, manufactured by E. Dietzgen Co. 

This list comprises the makes as recognized by the Faculty 
at the present time, and does not in any way cut out instru- 



Selection op Drawing Instruments and Materials 



ments or materials of equally good, characteristics as those here 
specified. There are, however, instruments on the market that 
are unsatisfactory, and the student is especially requested not 
to purchase any instruments without consultation with the 
Head of the Department of Drawing. 

The student is also advised to purchase from dealers who 
are responsible and who will make good any imperfect sets or 
parts within a reasonable time after purchase. 

Special care should be taken, by the purchaser, to see that 
every piece of each set of instruments purchased carries the 
imprint of the manufacturer's name or brand. 

Instrument Sets. 

The instruments shall be put up in full and partial sets. 
A full set of instruments shall consist of the following : 
1 — 5" Hair Spring Dividers. 
1 — 6" Compass, with Fixed Needle Point, Pen, Pencil Point and 

Lengthening Bar. 
1. — 31/^" Steel Spring Bow Dividers. 
1 — 3V2" Steel Spring Bow Compass. 
1—31/2" Steel Spring Bow Pencil. 
1 — 4^2" Drawing Pen with spring upper blade and Aluminum 

Handle. 
1 — 5^" Drawing Pen with spring upper blade and Aluminum 

Handle. 
1 — German Silver Box of 5H Leads for the Compass. 
1 — Folding Flap or Bar Lock Case. 

A partial set of instruments for students in Engineering, 
Mining and Chemistry Courses, shall consist of : 
1 — 5" Hair Spring Dividers. 
1 — 6" Compass, with Fixed Needle Point, Pen, Pencil Point and 

Lengthening Bar. 
1 — 5I/2" Drawing Pen with spring upper blade and Aluminum 

Handle. 



1 — German Silver Box of 5H Leads for the Compass. 
1 — Folding Flap or Bar Lock Case. 

A partial set of instruments for students in Agriculture 
shall consist of: 
1 — 6" Compass, with Two Steel Points, Pen, Pencil Points, 

Needle Point and Lengthening Bar. 
1 — 5I/2" Drawing Pen with spring upper blade and Aluminum 
Handle. 

Students are advised to purchase the full set of instru- 
ments as above outlined; but, in case they do not feel able to 
purchase the full set outright, they are advised to purchase 
partial sets of the better grade instruments. 

In case any student purchases a set of either of the last 
two brands listed in this bulletin, he will be expected to see 
that the Drawing Pen is of a quality included in one of the 
first six sets listed above, and as acceptable as one of those 
sets. 

Drafting Materials. 

Students are to supply themselves with the following ma- 
terials : 

1 — 20"x26" Drawing Board, not less than 9-16" nor more than 
13-16" in thickness to be made of well seasoned, straight 
grained white pine, free from sap and knots, neither var- 
nished nor shellaced, with end cleats of the same wood 
to be tongued and grooved to the ends of the board. 

1 — 24" T-square, Mahogany blade Ebony lined, or Maple blade 
Xylonite lined. 

1 — French Irregular Curve, Xylonite. 

1^5x45x8" Triangle, Xylonite. 

1—30x60x10" Triangle, Xylonite. 

1 — Pencil Eraser. 

1 — Circular Ink Eraser. 

1 — Dozen Thumb Tacks, 5-16" stamped head. 



Selection of Drawing Instruments and Materials 



1 — Sand-paper Block Pencil Pointer. 

1 — Penholder. 

1 — 2H Drawing Pencil. 

1 — 5H Drawing Pencil. 

4— No. 303 Gillott Pens. 

4— No. 604 Gillott Pens. 

4 — No. 521 F. Leonard Company Ball Point Pens. 

1— Metal Erasing Shield. 

1 — Bottle Higgins Waterproof Black Drawing Ink. 

1 — Strong Manila Envelope containing the following: 

6 — Sheets of 15"x22" white drawing paper of grade equal 
to Keuffel & Esser Co., Normal Paper. 

6 — Sheets of 15"x22" yellow detail drawing paper of grade 
equal to Keuffel & Esser Co., Duplex medium weight. 

6 — Sheets of 15"x22" tracing cloth of grade equal to the 
Imperial Brand. 
1 — Box of Pounce. 
1— Blotter. 

1 — Set of Lettering Plates. 

1 — Notes on Mechanical Drawing, 1912 edition. 
1 — Adams Descriptive Geometry, Parts One and Two. 
1 — Set of Descriptive Geometry Problem Plates. 

Students will find it to their advantage not to purchase 
drawing instruments or supplies of any kind until they have 
attended their first scheduled exercise in the Department of 
Drawing, where they will receive more detailed instructions 
regarding the requirements of this department. 

BRANDS ON INSTRUMENTS. The student, in order 
to protect himself, should make certain that each piece of his 
set of instruments is stamped with the brand of the maker. 
These brands will appear as follows :- 

Alteneder "Alteneder" or "T. A. & Sons." 

Gem Union "Gem Union" or "E. D. & Co." 



Paragon "Paragon" or "K. & E." 

Kern "Kern & Co. " 

Riefler "Riefler" or "F. W. & Co." 

Richter ' ' Richter. ' ' 

Key Brand "Key" or a picture of a key. 

799A "799A." 

Instruments which are not stamped with one of the above 
designations should not be purchased by the student. In 
the selection of the instruments, the student should pay par- 
ticular attention to the prominent features of each, as de- 
scribed below. The catalogues of the large manufacturers 
will also furnish much additional information. 

Instrument Sets. 
The Full Set of instruments, which the specifications 
require for Engineering, Mining and Chemistry students 
is shown in Fig. 1. The instrument which is shown at the 




Fig. 1. — Full Set of Instruments. 



Selection op Drawing Instruments and Materials 



bottom of the figure is the compass, which is followed by the 
dividers, the bow spacer, the lengthening bar and pencil 
point for the compass, and the small and large ruling pen, 
while to the right of these are shown the bow pencil, bow 
pen, and lead box respectively. 

The Partial Set specified for these students, is the 
above set with the three bow instruments and small ruling pen 




Fig. 2. — Partial Set of Instruments for Agricultural Students, 

omitted. The partial set specified for the students in the 
Agricultural Courses is shown in Fig. 2. 



Professional Set. After graduation, the student 
who takes up the career of the professional draftsman will 
undoubtedly desire to add the small compass pen, the small 




Fig. 3. — Professional Set of Instruments. 

compass pencil^ and the beam compass parts, to make the set 
shown in Fig. 3. 



The Compass. 

Instrumental Patterns. The original instrument 
pattern is shown in A, Fig. 4. This original pattern has been 
modified in recent years to the round and flat patterns shown 



-" ^^- ^ riilKii 



B 



Fig. 4. — The Three Patterns of Instruments. 

in B and C respectively. The pattern of instruments selected 
is more a question of personal preference than anything else, 
as the pattern with which a draftsman is the most familiar 
is the one that he will recommend. The A pattern finds the 
greatest favor among draftsmen and is the one adopted foF 
the Alteneder, Gem Union, Paragon, Kern, Key, and 799A 
brands. The B pattern is next in favor and is the one adopted 
for the Rieffler and modified Kern brands. The C pattern is 
the one adopted for the Richter brand. 




Pig. 5. — The Tongue Joint. 



Selection op Drawing Instruments and Materials 



The Tongue Joint. The joints used to connect the 
various parts of each of the drawing instruments together 
have everything to do with their length of service and the ease 
of their manipulation. The original tongue joint, Fig. 5, used 
to join together the two legs of the compasses and dividers, 
is open to serious objection. The excessive amount of bearing 
surface between the parts of the tongue joint, makes it hard 
to operate, and the resultant wear, which takes place on this 
account, gives rise to lost motion which soon renders the in- 
strument unfit for use. 




Fig. 6. — The Pivot Joint with Set Screws. 

The Pivot Joint. The tongue joint was followed 
by the pivot joint. Pig. 6, in which set screws were used to 




hold the pivot screws in place. Later there was designed 
the pivot point shown in Fig. 7, in which thin lock nuts were 
used to hold the pivot screws in place. The pivot joint over- 
comes all of the disadvantages inherent in the tongue joint. 
In choosing between the two methods of holding the pivot 
screws in place, the set screw method is to be preferred. 
In the set screw t3T)e the pivot screws can be accurately 
fastened in place without danger of changing their adjust- 
ment, while this is very difficult to accomplish in the lock nut 
type. As only a part of the instruments having the yoke handle 
are pivot joint instruments, care must be exercised in their 
selection. 

The Straightening Device, shown in Fig. 8, is a 
flexible connection between the yoke and the legs of the com- 
pass or dividers, which serves to keep the handle on the yoke 




Fig. 7. — The Pivot .Joint with Lock Nuts. 



Pig. 8. — Straightening Device. 

always in a vertical position as the opening between the legs of 
these instruments is changed. While this device is intended 
to add to the ease of manipulating these instruments, it only 
adds to the complication of the pivot joint and is not to be 
recommended for general use. 



Selection op Drawing Instruments and Materials 




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Pig. 9. — Compasses. 

The Compass, Fig. 9, is made in two styles, the inter- 
changeable and fixed. In the interchangeable style, shown 
by the large compass, the needle point leg is fixed to the 
instrument, while the pen, pencil, and lengthening bar parts 
are removable. In the fixed style, shown by the smaller in- 
struments, both the needle point leg and the pen or pencil 
point legs are fixed in the instrument. The interchangeable 
variety is the one usually sold in the larger sizes. In the 
smaller sizes the fixed variety is to be preferred, although 
the small interchangeable instruments will also be found very 
convenient. Either of the smaller types can be used to advan- 
tage for the greater part of the work usually done with the 
bow instruments. The length of the compass, as well as of 
the dividers, is taken as the overall length exclusive of the 
yoke, i. e. a 5%" compass is 5V2" long without the yoke. 



D 



Fig. 10. — Compass Leg Joints. 



Compass Leg Joints. The joint, used in the com- 
pass leg for holding the interchangeable parts (pencil point, 
pen point, and lengthening bar) in place, is shown in its 
various styles in Fig. 10. In A is shown the insertion piece 
with pentagonal shank, which was modified to the half round 
shank shown in B. In both these styles the shank is held 



in place by small set screws, which is open to the objection 
that any wear in the joint renders the set screw incapable of 
holding the parts rigidly in place. Part of this difficulty 
is overcome in the C type, by using a clamp screw in place of 
the set screw. The addition of the feather key, in combination 
with a slightly tapered round shank fitting into a tapered 
round socket and held in place by the clamp screw, has re- 
sulted in the almost perfect joint shown in D. 

The Pencil Leg shown in Fig. 11, is not desirable 
since it is impossible to clamp a piece of hard lead in place 
tight enough to prevent its slipping up into the leg when the 
compass is in use. This defect proves very annoying to the 
careful draftsman. Fig. 12 shows the ideal method of hold- 
ing the lead in the pencil leg, and is the type recommended. 
The proper design of needle point leg is also shown in Fig. 12. 




Fig. 11. — Old style Pencil Leg. 



Fig. 12. — Improved Pencil Leg. 



The Pen Leg, shown in Fig. 13, with the spring blade, 
is to be recommended over all types of pens with a hinge in 
the upper blade. The only objection to this pen is the trouble 
experienced in retaining the original setting of the pen when 
it is opened for cleaning. This difficulty, while not a serious 
one, has been overcome in the type shown in Fig. 14. Either 
style can be recommended for purchase. 





Fig. 13. — Pen Leg with Spring Blade. Fig. 14. — Pen Leg with Patented Opening 

Device. 



Selection of Drawing Instruments and Materials 



The Fixed Needle Point Leg of the compass can be 
had eithei' with or without the hair spring adjustment. This 
device, Fig. 15, is made by mounting the needle point leg 
upon a spring blade which is fixed to the compass. By means 




Fig. 15. — Section of Leg Showing Hair-spring. 

of a thumb screw controlling the spring blade, the needle 
point can be moved thru a very small distance. In this man- 
ner, a perfect setting of the instrument can be made with 
greater ease than is possible without the use of the hair spring. 



Pig. 16. — Needle Points. 



Selection of the Compass. In the selection of 
the compass be sure that it has a pivot joint, with handle; 
that the best method is used for holding the insertion joints, 
the lead point, and the needle point ; that both the pivot 
joint, as well as all the other joints, work smoothly; that the 
clamping screws have perfect threads ; that the needle point 
is as shown in Fig. 16 ; that the interchangeable parts can be 




rigidly clamped into place; that the instrument, when opened 
as shown in Fig. 17, has the ends of the legs in perfect align- 
ment. If they are not in perfect alignment reject the instru- 
ment. 

Dividers. 

Styles of Dividers. Dividers are made in two 
styles. In Fig. 18, the first of the three instruments shown is 
the plain style, with stiff legs. The second of the instruments 




Fig. 17. — Compass in Position for Testing Alignment. 



Fig. 18. — Styles of Dividers. 

is equipped with one stiff and one hair-spring leg, called the 
hair-spring style. Either of these styles can be provided with 
a knuckle joint in each leg, as shown in the third instrument. 

Selection of Dividers. In the use of the plain 
dividers difficulty is experienced in obtaining a fine setting 
between the needle points. This difficulty is overcome in 
the hair-spring dividers by the use of the thumb-screw ad- 
justment, which allows of a very delicate setting of the instru- 
ment. For this reason the hair-spring type is recommended 
for all work. The dividers should have a pivot joint with 
yoke handle. The points should be extremely sharp and of 
the same length. They should also be circular in section 
instead of triangular as is sometimes the case. 

Bow Instruments. 

Styles of Bow Instruments. There are three bow 
instruments : — the bow spacer, the bow pencil, and the bow pen. 
The original style of these three instruments is shown in Fig. 
19. This style, with the outside thumb nut, has been modified 



Selection of Drawing Instruments and Materials 



8 




Fig. 19. — Bow Instruments with Outside Thumb Nut, (Original Style). 

by placing the thumb nut between the legs as shown in Fig. 
20. Another style is the hook-spring instrument, Fig. 21, with 




Fig. 20. — Bow Instruments with Inside Thumb Nut. 

the thumb nut either inside or outside of the legs. The ori- 
ginal style, Fig. 19, finds the most favor among professional 
draftsmen. These instruments may be secured in several sizes. 
The 3%" size is to be preferred for the general run of work. 




Fig. 21. — Hook-spring type of Bow Instrument. 

Selection of the Bow Instruments. Care should be 
taken to see that the thumb nut works easily on the 
screw ; that the screw threads are perfect ; that the spring 
legs are stiff enough to open the instrument to the full length 
of the screw ; that the points of the bow spacer are sharp and 
of the same length ; that the needle point provided in the bow 
pen and pencil is shouldered on both ends as shown in Fig. 
16 ; and that the adjusting screw in the pen blade and the one 
in the lead holder work smoothly. Some draftsmen prefer 
to purchase a bow spacer and a 4I/2" standard compass with 



pen, pencil, and lengthening bar, to take the place of the 
bow pencil and bow pen. The leads provided for the large 
compass and bow pencil should be 5H. It is the usual practice 
to supply very soft lead which is useless for good work. 

Ruling Pen. 

The Ruling Pen, Fig. 22, requires considerable care 
in its selection, as it is almost impossible to turn out good 
drawings with a poor ruling pen. The aluminum handle is 
preferable to the usual ebony or bone handle because it does 
not break and thus render the instrument useless. The pen 
should also be of the type with spring upper blade as shown 



c 



Fig. 22. — Ruling Pen. 




Fig. 23. — Spring Upper Blade of Ruling Pen. 

in Fig. 23. Several devices, Fig. 24, have been patented, to 
enable the pen to be opened for cleaning purposes without 
disturbing the setting, but have not come into general use. 




Fig. 24. — Ruling Pens with Special Device to Facilitate Cleaning. 



Selection op Drawing Instruments and Materials 



Two sizes of ruling pens should be purchased, the large or 
5%" size for ordinary work, and the small or 4l^" size for 
complicated work. In selecting the ruling pen be sure that the 
points are of the same length and oval in shape. 

The Case selected to contain the instruments can be 
of either the bar-lock or folding flap style. The former is the 
cheaper, but the latter gives better satisfaction in use. If 
the student does not desire to purchase a case of either type, 
he can very easily make his own wrapper for the instruments 
out of a piece of chamois skin, by sewing loops on one side to 
receive each of the instruments. 



Drawing Materials. 




■Drawing Board. 



The Drawing Board, Fig. 25, should be selected 
with care and, in its main essentials, should closely follow the 
specifications. See that the board selected is very soft, as 
vexation and difficulty will be experienced iu the insertion 
and withdrawal of thumb tacks from a board of hard wood. 
The short edges of the board should be straight and free from 
small elevations or depressions. Do not purchase a board 
which has cleats fixed to one face. The end cleated board 
is better, and at the same time, provides two sides for drawing 
purposes. 

The T-Square, Fig. 26, comes in two styles. One has 
either a mahogany, maple, or pear wood blade, with on opaque 



ebony edge, while the other has a blade of one of these materi- 
als with a transparent celluloid edge. In either of these styles, 
the blade can be had with the fixed or movable head. For 




Fig. 26. — T-square with Fixed Head. 

ordinary use, the T-square with fixed head. Fig. 26, is prefera- 
ble, but at times it is desirable to make use of the T-square 
with a movable head, Fig. 27. The celluloid edged T-square 




Fig. 27. — T-square with Movable Head. 

gives the greatest satisfaction, because its transparent edge 
makes it easier to manipulate. It costs considerably more 
than the ebony edged T-square. Care should be exercised in the 
selection of a T-square to see that the edges of the blade are 
free from nicks ; that they are perfectly straight ; and that the 
blade is firmly fixed to the head. It is not essential that both 
edges of the blade be parallel, or that the blade be exactly 
perpendicular to the head. If a long T-square is desired, the 



Selection op Drawing Insteuments and Materials 



10 



blade should be fixed to the head as shown in Fig. 28, that is, 
the blade is fastened below the center of the head. To test 




Fig. 28. — English T-square. 



the blade of the T-square for straightness, draw a fine line 
its full length, and then, by reversing the T-square, see if the 
same edge of the blade coincides with the line as drawn. 
If it does not, the blade is not straight, and the T-square should 
be rejected. 




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Fig. 29. — Architect's Scale. 



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The Scale can be obtained in two types; — one the Archi- 
tect's scale, Fig. 29, divided into proportional feet and inches, 
and the other, the Engineer's scale. Fig. 30, divided into tenths, 
twentieths, etc. of an inch. The Architect's scale is used in all 
Mechanical, Architectural, and Structural drafting, while the 
Engineer's scale is used in plotting surveys, drawing maps, 
etc., and in the solution of graphical problems in Mechanics 



and Structures. The scales are usually made of boxwood, 
with or without a white celluloid edge, upon which the divi- 
sions are shown. The white edged scales are easier to read 
than those of plain boxwood. Metal scales are extremely hard 
on the eyes, and are not recommended. Each type of scale 
can be secured in the ordinary triangular shape. Fig. 29, with 
all the scale divisions placed on the same instrument ; or flat 
shaped. Fig. 31, with one or more scale divisions placed on 



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Fig. 31. — Flat Style of Scale. 



each instrument. In selecting the flat type of scale, the reverse 
bevel edge type. Fig. 32, is preferable to the style shown in 




Fig. 32. — The Opposite Bevel Scale. 

Fig. 31. For professional work it is best to select the flat 
scale with one set of scale divisions to each instrument, which 
requires six to eight scales for a complete set. For student 
work the triangular type is preferred, even with the difficulty 
experienced in getting the different scale divisions confused. 
This difficulty is easily overcome if care is exercised in the 
use of the instrument. The scales are furnished in different 
lengths, but the twelve inch length should be purchased. 
When selecting a scale, use care to see that the divisions are 
clear and sharp and that the edges of the scale are straight 
and free from nicks. 



11 



Selection of Drawing Instruments and Materials 





30-60 Degree Triangle. 45-45 Degree Triangle. 

Pig. 33. 

Triangles. In Fig. 33 are shown the two forms of 
triangles in common use. The first is the 30-60 degree form, 
and the other is the 45-45 degree form. Transparent triangles, 
made of celluloid, should invariably be purchased, as the wood- 
en or hard rubber variety are a constant source of trouble. The 
celluloid triangle should be at least 1-16" in thickness, the 
edges should be straight and true, and the angles should be 
accurate. Purchase only the better grades, as the cheaper 
kinds become opaque and then give the same difficulty in 
use as the wooden variety. To test the angles of a triangle, 
construct 30, 60, 45, and 90 degree angles geometrically, and 
test the corresponding angles of the triangle by means of 
these constructed angles. 




The French Curve selected should be of celluloid, 
1-16" in thickness, and of the type shown in Fig, 34. Flexible 
curves are sometimes used. These are made from lead or soft 
copper wire and may be bent to fit any desired curve. 

The Drawing ' Pencils are specially prepared for 
the service intended, and may be had in various degrees of 
hardness. The 6B grade is very soft and black, followed in 
order of hardness by 5B, 4B, 3B, 2B, B, HB, F, H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 
5H, 6H, 7H, and 8H which is extremely hard. The grades 
below H are used for pencil sketching and Architectural work, 
while the grades from H up, are used in Mechanical drawing. 
The 5H and 6H are the best for ordinary detail work, while 
the H and 2H are the best for lettering and sketching. The 
Kohinoor and Faber pencils are the finest in quality, and, 
while they cost more than the other varieties, they give in- 
creased satisfaction and length of service. 




Pig. 34. — French Curve. 



Pig. 35. — Pencil Sharpener. 

A Pencil Sharpener is to be provided. This may 
be a block of very fine sand-paper, Fig. 35, or a fine flat file. 

Pens. The assortment of pens for lettering should in- 
clude the three following varieties: — coarse, F. Leonard ball 
point pen No. 521F ; medium, Gillott No. 604 ; and fine, Gillott 
No. 303. 

The Penholder should be provided with a cork 
grip. This grip should be small enough to enter the mouth 
of the ink bottle with ease, but not so small as to make it 
necessary to cramp the fingers when using the penholder. 



Selection of Drawing Instruments and Materials 



12 



Ink. The drawing ink selected is to be Higgins' black 
waterproof drawing ink, as it is the most satisfactory in 
every respect. The stick India ink is preferred to the pre- 
pared liquid ink for vei-y fine drawings. It is used considerably 
in Architectural work but is not recommended for ordinary 
drafting, on account of the difficulty experienced in grinding 
the ink for use. 



for patent office drawings and for reproductions. In selecting 
a drawing paper, pay particular attention to its toughness 
and erasing qualities, and note that the cream, buff, or yellow 
papers are much easier on the eyes than the white. The cheap- 
er manila papers are not to be tolerated for drawing purposes. 
For drawings that have to stand hard usage, the paper can be 
purchased mounted on cloth. 



Fig. 36. — Solid Head Thumb Tack. 




Fig. 37. — Thumb Tack with Point Stamped from Head. 

Thumb Tacks. There are two varieties of thumb tacks, 
one with the point inserted in the head, Fig. 36, and the other 
with the point stamped from the head. Fig. 37. Select the 
latter, and take only those with sharp points and small heads. 
The first kind costs more but is easier on the T-square edge, 
provided that the circumference of the head of the tack is 
beveled to a sharp edge as shown. 

The Drawing Paper is manufactured in several 
grades and colors, and in light, medium, and heavy weight. 
It can be purchased cut into sheets, or in large continuous 
rolls in any of the following widths— 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, and 
60 inches. The medium weight yellow duplex detail paper 
is used for ordinary pencil drawings. White "Normal" paper 
is used for drawings to be inked. Whatman's cold pressed, 
hot pressed, or rough, is used for either ink or color work, 
for fine work, and for water color sketches, in the order 
named. Bristol board is a smooth white board used 



The Tracing Cloth purchased should be of the best. 
The Imperial brand is recommended. In handling tracing 
cloth, note that moisture or water, coming into contact with 
the surface of the cloth, will ruin it. Tracing papers are 
used in place of tracing cloth for duplicating purposes and 
for preliminary designs. The Alba brand is the best for 
all around service. 




. Fig. 38. — Circular Ink Eraser. 

Erasers. Select a large pencil eraser of red rubber. 
Rubber manufacturers generally recognize red rubber as the 
best grade. A circular typewriter eraser. Fig. 38, is recom- 
mended in preference to all others. A steel ink eraser knife, 
Fig. 39, is a handy tool for the draftsman to possess. 



I 



Fig. 39. — Steel Eraser. 



13 



Selection of Drawing Instruments and Materials 



An Erasing Shield, Fig. 40, is a great time saver 
when complicated erasures are to be made. The metal shield 
is to be preferred to the celluloid variety. 




Fig. 40. — Eraser Shield. 

A Penwiper of lintless cloth should always be availa- 
ble for wiping the pens, and two or three good absorbent 
blotters should always be on hand for cleaning the ruling pen. 



Description of Special Instruments. 

In addition to the instruments just specified, there are 
numerous other instruments which the draftsman will find 
desirable to add to his set as he takes up different lines of 
work. 



Fig 41. — Detail Pen. 

The Detail Pen. In Fig. 41, is shown a detail pen 
which is very convenient for ruling long lines. The desira- 
bility of this pen is due to the large amount of ink which it 
will carry, necessitating less frequent filling than is the case 
with the ordinary pen. 




Pig. 42. — ^Railroad Pen and Pencil. 



The Railroad Pen and pencil, shown in Fig. 42, 
is very essential for railroad work, or any other work requir- 
ing parallel lines drawn at a comparatively small distance 
apart. In using this style of pen, the space enclosed between 
the separate pens, as well as the pens themselves, can be filled 
with ink, which will permit the drawing of a single heavy 
line at one operation. 



Fig. 43. — Contour Pen. 

The Contour Pen. The contour or curve pen. Fig. 
43, is essential for speed in inking contour lines in map work, 
and topographical drawing. The pen turns in the hand, 
and this, together with the peculiar shape of the pen, makes 
it possible to draw the most irregular curves with ease. 

Dotting Pens. Various pens are available for inking 
dotted lines, and are occasionally desirable for making such 
lines on drawings for reproduction. 



Selection of Drawing Instruments and Materials 



14 



The Drop Pen, Fig. 44, is a very convenient instru- 
ment for drawing small circles, such as rivets on structural 
drawings. This instrument is to be preferred to the bow in- 
struments for this class of work. The drop pen is not suitable 
for drawing circles of large diameter. 




Fig. 44. — Drop Pen. 



The Prick Punch, Fig. 45, is sometimes preferred 
to the drawing pencil for pointing off scale distances. 



Pig. 45. — Prick Punch. 



The Protractor, Fig. 46, is desirable for laying out 
angles which are not multiples of 15 degrees. This instrument 




Fig. 46. — Protractor. 



is put up in a more convenient shape for use, in the Brown 
and Sharp protractor, shown in Fig. 47, which has a vernier 
reading to minutes. 




Fig. 47.— Brown and Sharpe Protractor. 

The Payzant Lettering Pen, Fig. 48, can be ob- 
tained in six sizes, graded to draw lines varying in width from 
medium to very heavy. This pen will prove a valuable addi- 
tion to the draftsman's outfit, as by its use, a large part of 
the difficulty in rendering free hand letters in ink is over- 
come. 




Pig. 48. — Payzant Lettering Pen. 

The Beam Compass is made in two styles, one for 
use on a wooden bar. Fig. 49, and the other with the needle, 
pencil, and inking attachment mounted on a metal bar. Fig. 




Pig. 49. — Beam Compass, Wooden Bar Type. 



15 



Selection op Drawing Instruments and Materials 



a greater regularity in the spacing of lines. However, a good 
draftsman can space cross-hatch lines almost perfectly with- 
out the aid of any special device. 




Fig. 50. — Beam Compass, Metal Bar Type. 

50. Each style is desirable, with the preference in favor 
of the metal bar instrument, because the bar, which comes 
in sections, is always with the instrument when needed. In 
purchasing a beam compass of either type, be sure that a 
micrometer device is provided for the purpose of fine adjust- 
ment. 



Fig. 52. Pantograph. 



The Pantograph, Fig. 52, is used for reducing and 
enlarging drawings, and proves to be a very convenient in- 
strument when a great amount of work is to be done. 




Fig. 51. — Proportional Dividers. 

The Proportional Dividers, Fig. 51, are useful for 
reducing or enlarging drawings, as with their aid much time 
can be saved in transferring dimensions. 

Cross-Hatching Devices. Various devices are in use 
to make cross-hatching less irksome, but at best their 
manipulation is not a time saver, altho their use results in 




Fig. 53. — Universal Drafting Machine. 



Selection of Drawing Instruments and Materials 



Drafting Machines. The Universal Drafting Ma- 
chine, Fig. 53, is the best of a large number of devices on the 
market for relieving the draftsman of a considerable part of the 
manual labor required in drawing. This instrument combines 
the T-square, triangle, and scale, all in one movable arm, which 
can be made to cover all parts of the drawing board without 
the expenditure of any more effort on the draftsman's part 
than it takes to move the T-square about. The head carrying 
the horizontal and vertical arms is swiveled, which allows the 
placing of the arm in position to draw any size angle required. 
This machine is used in a large number of commercial drawing 
rooms, where it has shown a saving of from 25 to 50% of the 
time required by the old method of turning out drawings. 

The Steel Straight Edge, is used in plotting sur- 
veys and in drawing long straight lines where greater accuracy 
is required than can be obtained with the ordinary T-square. 



16 

Special Forms of Triangles devised for the drafts- 
man's use are illustrated in Fig. 54) known as the Kelsey; 
in Fig. 55, known as the Rondinella; and in Fig. 56, known 
as the Technology. There are also numerous other special 
triangles used for lettering purposes. 



Fig. 57. — Oilstone. 

Oil Stones. A good Arkansas oil stone Fig. 57, will 
prove convenient for the purpose of keeping the ruling and 
compass pens in good condition. 




Fig. 54. — Kelsey Triangle. 

Fig. 55.- 



Fig. 56.- 
-Rondinella Triangle. 



-Technology Triangle. 



□ 



3jrDt=3---= 



Fig. 58. — Pencil Holder. 

The Pencil Holder, Fig. 58, with insertable leads, 
is preferred by some draftsmen to the ordinary drawing 
pencil. The leads for these holders come in 6" lengths and 
in all degrees of hardness. 



CHAPTER II. 
CARE OF THE INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 



Good Form in Drawing. Particular attention should 
be given in beginning the use of drawing instruments and 
materials to the various details which count for good 
form in drawing. It is quite essential that correct methods 
should be cultivated at the start, if one would become pro- 
ficient in the draftsman's art. Bad form in drawing is very 
common among draftsmen. This is due mainly to carelessness 
and lack of knowledge in the essentials at the beginning, 
causing the formation of bad habits which are very hard to 
overcome. The habits formed at the very start are the ones 
that the student will carry out with him to his professional 
career. If they are habits, of carelessness, indifference, or 
laziness, they will cause him a vast amount of hardship. He 
will have to unlearn such habits some day or give way to the 
man who cultivated, at the start, the habit of always giving 
quiet, strict attention to the work at hand. In other words, 
it is necessary to concentrate on the thing to be accomplished, 
and to get it done with the least possible expenditure of time 
and energy. 

General Care. The care of the instruments is the 
first requisite to good form. They should be kept clean and 
free from moisture, and always in first class working order. 
The compass should work freely in the joints without being 
either too tight or too loose. The same may be said of the 
dividers. The bow instruments should have a drop of oil 
placed upon the screw thread to facilitate the easy manipula- 



tion of the adjusting thumb nut. The length of service of 
these instruments depends on the lasting qualities of the 
spring blade and upon the care taken of the screw thread. 
It is especially important that the tension on the spring blade 
be always released before placing the instrument aside. In 
regulating the thumb nut, be careful not to strip the threads 
or to damage them in any way. The ruling and compass 
pens should always be kept properly sharpened and scrupul- 
ously clean. The pen when in use should never be laid aside 
without first cleaning the ink from the blade with a blotter. 
When it is to be put away for any length of time, the points 
should be very carefully cleaned. The importance of keeping 
the pen clean is due to the fact that the ink corrodes the steel 
points and renders them unfit for use. The small adjusting 
thumb screws of the pen, compass, and dividers should have 
a drop of oil placed upon them to make them work easily and 
keep them from rusting. In laying a pen aside after use, 
always open the adjusting thumb screw to relieve the tension 
on the blades. In placing the drawing instruments away, 
always clean all finger marks, etc. from them. Do not keep 
the chamois skin, used in cleaning the instruments, in the case, 
as its property of absorbing moisture will cause the instru- 
ments to rust. 

Sharpening the Ruling Pen. All first grade ruling 
pens come from the maker sharpened ready for use, and 
should not require resharpening for quite a while. If, how- 



17 



Cajbe op the Instruments and Materials 



18 



ever, at any time the pen does need resharpening, secure a 
fine grained Arkansas oil stone for the purpose. Fix clearly 
in mind the correct shape of the pen before starting to work. 
Do not grind the pen points on the inside, but do all the grind- 
ing on the outside of the blade. Do not grind the point off 
at a bevel, but grind the point for %" or more up the length 
of the blade. In grinding, first bring the points just together, 
without squeezing them any, and, with the stone at right angles 
with the axis of the pen, grind them to the correct oval shape, 
being sure that they are of the same length. After this is ac- 
complished, open the pen and grind the outside of the point 
to a sharp edge. When the entire edge of the point is sharp, 
remove the burr from the inside of the point by rubbing it 
lightly over the stone. Be sure that the surface of the stone 
is in contact with the entire inner surface of the blade, and 
not merely bearing on the sharp point. 

Care of the Drawing Board, T-square, Etc. The 
drawing board should be kept in a dry place. Care should 
be taken not to cut its surface full of grooved lines in trim- 
ming drawings upon it, or to dent its edges. The T-square 
should never be used to drive tacks, and the working or top 
edge of the blade should never be used as a straight edge to 
guide the knife when trimming drawings. Always use the bot- 



tom edge of the blade for this purpose. Care should be taken 
not to jam the head of the T-square against anything, as when 
the head becomes loose the T-square is worse than useless. 
The triangles should be kept clean and the edges should never 
be used for trimming drawings. The scale should be well 
taken care of in order to keep the edges straight and free from 
nicks, and its graduations clear and sharp. The drawing 
paper and tracing cloth are very susceptible to moisture and 
should be kept in a dry place. Special care should be taken 
to prevent all forms of moisture from coming into contact 
with the tracing cloth, as it will render the cloth unfit for 
use by destroying its inking qualities and rendering it opaque. 
Drawing ink that has once been frozen is unfit for use. Ink 
that has become too thick for use should be thrown away and 
a new supply secured. 

Identification Mark, Each instrument and piece 
of material of the student's outfit should have an irremovable 
identification mark placed upon it in a conspicuous place. 
This should be done before bringing the outfit into the draw- 
ing rooms. Attention given to this matter at the start will 
save much trouble from the loss of instruments or other sup- 
plies. 



CHAPTER III. 
LETTERING 



One of tlie primary essentials for a successful rendering 
of drawings, is the ability of the draftsman to render the 
descriptive matter, dimension figures, and titles, in a neat, 
artistic, and finished manner. A poor quality of lettering 
has spoiled the business getting qualities of a large number 
of otherwise excellent designs. A fine quality of lettering, 
combined with the other details which make a drawing 
pleasing to the eye, has been the means of securing favorable 
consideration for a well rendered poor design, over better de- 
signs that were not so well rendered. It is extremely impor- 
tant that the student make a determined effort, at the outset 
of his professional career, to become proficient in the render- 
ing of freehand lettering. The ability of a student to letter 
well depends wholly upon the amount of attention given 
to the principles underlying the formation of the several styles 
of letters, and to diligent practice in their construction until 
nothing short of perfection is attained. The ability of the 
student to write well or poorly has nothing whatever to do 
with his proficiency as a good letterer. Good lettering is not 
mechanical drawing, but is a question of design, or the bal- 
ancing of black and white masses to produce a pleasing ap- 
pearance. Some draftsmen insist, however, upon the use of 
such mechanically distorted letters as geometrical block letters 
and the shadow letters. These letters are not recommended 
for use upon any kind of mechanical drawing. Mechanical, 
structural, and topographical draftsmen are concerned prin- 



cipally with the application of modern Roman and Gothic 
capitals, and the Roman small letters, which make up the 
descriptive matter and the necessary titles upon their respec- 
tive type of drawings. The architectural draftsman will not 
have much use for the modern Roman letters, but will find 
much use for the old Roman letters. 

History. Our present day letters are the result of a 
long evolution in the art of letter formation, leading back 
to the Egyptians, and coming down to us modified by 
Phoenician, Greek, and Roman influences. The old Roman 
style of letters reached their full development about two 
thousand years ago and are in existence to-day in the form 
of inscriptions made at that date. This old Roman style is 
the parent of all present day lettering, and is the one made 
the most use of by artistic designers at the present time. 
The capitals were the only letters known up to the beginning 
of the ninth century, at which time the first Roman small 
letters were introduced. This first type of small letters was 
modified during the eleventh century, into the form of the 
small letters as used to-day. 

Roman Capitals. The characteristic features of the 
Roman capital letters consist in the squareness and circularity 
of their basic forms, and in the use of thin and thick lines 
in their composition. The use of the thin and thick lines 
in the formation of these letters, resulted from the manner 
in which the early Latin scribes held their reed pens in writ- 



19 



Lettering 



20 



ing. The pen was held in such a position with respect to 
the paper, that a downward stroke of the pen, from left to 
right, gave the maximum width of line, while the downward 
stroke from right to left gave a very thin line. This feature 
of the pen-formed letters was later preserved when the letters 
were cut in stone. 

The Serif is the horizontal hair-line stroke, used to 
finish the ends of the stems of all the Roman letters. The 
serif, in combination with the circular fillets used to join 
it to the stem, forms the so called spur. The rendering of 
these spurs exerts a large influence upon the general appear- 
ance of the finished letter. It is the usual custom to designate 
the heavy parts of the Roman capitals as heavy stems, and the 
thin parts as hair-line stems. 

There are numerous variations of the modern Roman 
capitals extant. The alphabet given on Adams' letter plate 
9 is well proportioned and shows a very admirable construc- 
tion for these letters. The construction of such an alphabet 
depends essentially upon the height, the relative width, and 
the weight of the heavy and hair-line stems, and the relation 
existing between the enclosed white spaces and the black out- 
lines of the letters. These general features are further modi- 
fied by the different optical effects produced by the various 
letter forms. If the letters composed of two inclined stems 
meeting in a point, like the A and V, are made the same, 
height as the other letters, they will appear to be smaller in 
height than the others. This optical defect can be over- 
come either by flattening off the sharp intersection to a width 
equal to that of the heavy stems, or else by extending the 
pointed end of the letters slightly beyond the height of the 
other letters, as is done on letter plate 9. 

Letters composed of curved portions tanent to the hori- 
zontal guide lines, as in the C-G-J-0-Q-S-U, when made equal 
in height to the others will appear to be smaller in height than 



the others. This defect is overcome by extending the top 
and bottom parts of such letters slightly beyond the horizontal 
guide lines and thus increasing their height. 

Letters composed of two similar halves, as the B-E-R-S- 
X-Z, must have their top parts decreased both 4n horizontal 
and vertical width. This decrease in horizontal width is 
always made. on the right side of the letters mentioned, except 
in the Z where it is made on the left side. If this difference 
in the size of the two halves of the letters were not made, they 
would appear top-heavy. This simple expedient, of making 
the top portions smaller than the lower portions, gives them 
an appearance of stability that is pleasing to the eye. This 
effect of stability is still further enhanced by making the 
upper spurs of the E-S-Z shorter than the corresponding 
lower spurs. The appearance of all the letters is also im- 
proved by allowing the serifs to extend beyond their points 
of tangency with the fillets, which join them to the main 
body of the letters. Especially note the horizontal hair-line 
in the A-B-E-F-H-P-R and the point of intersection of the 
diagonal stems in the K-X-Y. 

The Roman Small Letters did not attain their dis- 
tinctive proportions until after the invention of printing. 
Adams' letter plate 11 gives a very good example of this 
type of letter. It will be noticed that one half of the Roman 
small letters are merely counterparts of their corresponding 
capitals. There are three classes of small letters : first those 
that are equal in height to their corresponding capital letters 
as the b-d-f-h-1, and known as "ascenders;" second, those 
that are equal in height to their corresponding capitals but 
extend below the bottom horizontal guide line of the first 
class as the g-j-p-q-y, and known as "descenders;" third, 
those that are only % of the height of their corresponding 
capitals as the a-c-e-i-m-n-o-r-s-u-v-w-x-z, and known as "short 
letters." The t, while not as high as its corresponding capital, 



21 



Lettering 



belongs to the first class. For optical reasons the curved 
parts of all the letters, that come tangent to a horizontal 
guide line, extend a trifle above or below the guide line, 
as the case may be. The height of the short letters, a-c-etc, 
as vpell as the curved parts of the ascenders and descenders, 
is made equal to % of the height of the ascenders. The stems 
of the descenders extend, below the lower guide line for the 
short and ascending letters, a distance equal to % of the 
height of the ascenders. 

The Gothic Capitals are an adaptation of the Roman, 
in their construction, all of the serifs attached to the 
extremities of the vertical, horizontal, and curved stems of the 
Roman letters are eliminated, and the weight of all of the 
stems is made uniform thruout. Adams' letter plate 7, shows 
the form and construction of the Gothic capitals. Since 
the thickness of the stems is uniform, their width should not 
be as great as that of the heavy stems of the Roman capitals. 
The changes introduced in certain letters of the Roman alpha- 
bet, to overcome optical defects, apply with equal force to 
the corresponding letters of the Gothic alphabet. 

The Gothic Small Letters are derived from the 
Roman small letters by eliminating all of the straight and 
curved serifs and the bulbs and by making the outlines of 
the letters uniform in weight thruout. They are the simplest 
form of small letters and for this reason are very largely 
used for rendering most of the descriptive matter upon draw- 
ings. The letters in their simplest form are shown upon 
Adams' letter plates 18 and 19, lines 12 and 13. In studying 
the letters as given upon these plates, note the simplification 
of the a and g and also the difference existing between the g 
and the q. 

The Circle is the basic part of the vertical small 
letters shown upon letter plate 18. This fact should be firmly 



fixed in the mind as it will aid greatly in forming the nicely 
rounded letter, that is so pleasing to the eye in all professional 
lettering. Also keep this in mind, especially when changing 
from the vertical type of letters to the inclined 
type. In the inclined style the circle is changed into 
an ellipse with its major axis at an angle of 45 degrees, while 
the straight stems make an angle of between 60 and 75 
degrees depending upon the taste of the draftsman. 

The Small Inclined Gothic is used much more, 
than is the vertical, for the simple reason that it is easiest 
to construct rapidly and still preserve its uniform appearance. 
Any variation in the perpendicularity in the construction of 
the vertical letters shows up at once and spoils the pleasing 
■effect of the entire line. In the inclined letters, however, 
there can be considerable variation in the slope of the various 
letters without its having any serious effect upon the resultant 
appearance of the finished line of letters. The student needs 
to practice constantly upon the Gothic small letters until he 
becomes very proficient in their speedy rendering. Remember 
that in letters, comparatively small in height, the best effect 
is obtained by making the letters wide and full in comparison 
to their height, and also by spacing them close together. 
The beginner will have to overcome a natural tendency to 
make the lower end of the curved stem of the h-m-n, slope 
in towards the bottom of the vertical stem. These stems 
must be kept parallel to the vertical stems. Their ends may 
be curved slightly in the opposite direction, in order to obtain 
the wide effect. 

In the composition of the letters, study the order and 
direction of making the separate strokes for each of the letters, 
so that it will become a habit to render the strokes in their 
natural order and direction as given upon the letter plates 
18 and 19. 



Lettering — Study Plate I 



22 



In reading a line of words, the reader unconsciously de- 
rives the meaning by a recognition of words forms and not 
by reading each individual letter in each word. For this 
reason a line of words composed of small letters is easier 
to read than if the words are made up of capitals. Care 
must therefore be exercised to keep the construction of the 
letters uniform, to space them close together, and to space 
the words far enough apart to make them easily read. For 
legibility the words should be spaced a distance apart equal 
to the height of the letters making up the words. The inclina- 
tion of the axes of the inclined letters is always forward. 

Numbers. The essential characteristic of the Roman 
and Gothic capitals are retained in the construction of their 
corresponding numbers. The peculiar outline of the numbers 
requires that their widths be made somewhat smaller than 
the average width of the corresponding capitals. The num- 
bers, as a general rule, are always made equal in height to the 
capital letters. Fractions are made somewhat higher, gener- 
ally twice the height of the whole number preceding. The 
division line of the fraction is kept horizontal. 



STUDY PLATE 1. 

Plate Analysis. This plate is designed to give practice in : 

(a) The development of correct working methods 
in the use of the detail drawing paper, the white "Nor- 
mal" paper, and the tracing cloth; in the preparation 
of the tracing cloth for tracing ; in the use of the drawing 
board and T-square ; in the drawing of a horizontal pencil 
line thru a given point; in the use of the thumb tacks, the 



drawing pencil, and the ruling pen; in the ruling of an ink 
line ; in filling the ruling pen ; in ruling horizontal lines 
with either the drawing pencil or ruling pen; in the use of 
the scale, the pencil and ink erasers, the metal erasing shield 
and the steel erasing knife ; in the lettering of drawings ; 
in the use of the Gillott No. 303 pen, the ball point pen, 
the stub pen ; and the placing of the plate notation. 

(b) The placing and aligning of a drawing upon the 
drawing board, in the placing and the preparation of the 
tracing cloth, in the tracing of a border line, in the layout of 
a trimming line, in the layout and drawing of lettering guide 
lines. 

(c) In tracing the elementary strokes as well as the 
finished letter forms of both the vertical and inclined Gothic 
capitals, numbers, and small letters, from printed letter 
plates. 

The Size of the Trimmed Plate is to be IO14" x U%". 

The Plate Requires a finished tracing to be made of Adams ' 
letter plates 18 and 19. 

The Equipment Required consists of drawing board, 
T-square, Architect's scale, large ruling pen, bottle of 
black drawing ink, pen holder, Leonard No. 521F ball 
point pen, Gillott No. 303 fine point pen, 2H drawing pencil, 
pencil sharpener, thumb tacks, pen- wiper, blotter, box of 
Pounce, Adams' letter plates 18 and 19, and a 15" x 22" 
sheet of tracing cloth. 

Working Methods. It is particularly important for 
the student draftman to give strict attention, at the beginning 
of his career, to the formation of correct habits in his working 
methods. He should study the best methods of performing 
each operation in the construction of a finished drawing, in 
order to gain speed, accuracy, and neatness as he progresses 



23 



Lettering — Study Plate I — ^Working Methods 



in his work. The cost of upkeep for technical service in a 
drafting room or in any other part of an industrial plant 
is an expensive proposition under the most favorable condi- 
tions. Consequently the man at the head of any particular 
department, to make a good showing on the right side of the 
ledger, is compelled to weed out, from his force, the men with 
inefficient and slipshod methods of working. It is only by 
the constant repetition of the same thing that habits are 
formed, hence a piece of work cannot be done in a neat 
and orderly manner one time and in a slipshod don't-care way 
the next time without its having its effect in the formation of 
good habits. 

A person, who has formed the habit of doing a thing 
in a certain way, will unconsciously act according to the 
habit formed each time he is required to do that particular 
thing, and it will take a very determined effort on his part 
to do the thing contrary to the habit that he has formed. 
In order, for the student to achieve ultimate success in any 
line of work, he will do well to remember that concentration 
on the thing to be done and doing it better than it has ever 
been done before, is the thing that counts most in winning out. 

The Yellow Detail Drawing Paper is used for 
making pencil drawings which are to be traced. In making 
such drawings the preliminary or layout penciling should be 
done as lightly as possible, consistent with good work. When 
it is decided, which of the preliminary layout lines are to be 
incorporated into the final drawing they can be gone over 
again, with the pencil, and made sharp and black, in order 
that the drawing may be easily traced. The superfluous lines 
can then be erased without roughing up the fiber of the paper. 
Any use of the eraser upon the drawing paper tends to 
increase its tendency for collecting dirt. Never use a cheap 
detail paper as it is very poor economy. During the con- 



struction of a drawing, exercise care to keep the parts of 
the drawing, not being worked upon, covered up in order to 
keep the drawing as clean as possible. 

The White Normal Paper is used for making pen- 
cil drawings which are to be inked. In making such 
drawings the final, as well as the preliminary penciling, is 
to be done as lightly as possible, consistent with good work. 
A very poor ink drawing will be the result of attempting 
to ink over heavy pencil lines, or heavy lines which have been 
erased to make them light. Care should be exercised not 
to draw any extra pencil lines upon this type of drawing, in 
order that the minimum amount of erasing shall be required 
to clean the final inked drawing. In cleaning such a drawing, 
be careful not to rub over the inked lines any more than is 
absolutely necessary. 

The Tracing Cloth is used to make inked tracings 
from pencil drawings, in order that reproductions of them 
may be made. A pencil drawing, when ready for tracing, 
must be complete in every detail, with all the pencil lines 
sharp and black. A great deal of difficulty will be experienced 
in tracing if the lead pencil lines are too light. After the 
tracing is completed it is used as a negative to make as many 
reproductions as required upon a sensitized paper. This paper 
may be sensitized and manipulated in such a way as to give 
white lines on a blue back-ground, blue lines on a white back- 
ground, black lines on a white back-ground, or white lines 
on a brown back-ground, etc. When a tracing is made, the 
original drawing may be destroyed because the tracing is 
filed away for reference and future use. 

Tracing cloth is extremely susceptible to moisture, and 
great care must be exercised in its use. Its transparent qual- 
ities will be immediately destroyed whenever water, perspira- 
tion, or any other kind of moisture comes into contact with 
its surface. The condition of the weather has a large influence 



Lettering — Study Plate I — ^Working Methods 



24 



on the working qualities of the cloth. A piece of tracing 
cloth, thoroughly stretched on a dry day, will take ink very 
readily and be easy to work upon; but if the air should 
become damp before the tracing is finished, the cloth will 
become loose on the board, necessitating restretching and 
destroying the easy working qualities of the cloth. For this 
reason, when a tracing has once been started it should be 
hurried to completion as rapidly as possible. 

The tracing cloth is prepared for receiving ink, by first 
tightly stretching it with its dull side uppermost. A small 
quantity of the Pounce is then sprinkled over the cloth and 
thoroughly rubbed into the surface with the fingers. After 
the rubbing process is over, the excess Pounce must be thoro- 
ughly dusted off, otherwise difficulty will be experienced in 
inking. 

The Drawing Board is to be placed on the drawing 
table with its long edges facing the student. The best face, 
and the best of the short edges of the board should have a 
pencil mark placed upon them, in order that they may be the 
ones always used for drawing purposes. The short edge of 
the board, as marked, should be at the student's left when 
the board is placed upon the drawing table. With the drawing 
board in the proper position for drawing, print your name in 
the upper right hand corner. Do not use the marked face of 
the board for anything but drawing purposes. In case it is 
desired to use the board for trimming plates, the back face 
of the board is to be used, so as not to damage the drawing 
face in any way. 

The T-square is used for drawing parallel horizontal 
lines. It is placed upon the drawing board. Pig. 59, in such 
a position that its long part or blade lies flat upon the drawing 
face of the board, and the short part, or head rests against the 
left hand short edge of the board. The T-square is manipu- 
lated, Fig. 59, by grasping its head in the left hand. It is 



extremely important that care be exercised to always hold 
the head of the T-square tightly against the edge of the 
board, in order that a line drawn with the square in one 
position will be exactly parallel to every other line drawn with 
the square in other positions. The top edge of the T-square 
blade is used for drawing lines. Fig. 60, and as a rest for the 
triangle, Fig. 61. Never use this edge of the blade as a 
straight edge to trim drawings, but always use the lower edge 
of the blade for this purpose. Be careful to keep the top 




Fig. 59. — ^Front View — Showing Manipulation of T-square. 

edge of the blade free from nicks, otherwise inaccuracy in the 
drawing will result. Never use a square whose blade is 
not perfectly straight and firmly attached to the head. In 
pencil drawings, the T-square is used only for drawing hori- 
zontal lines. It is never used for drawing vertical lines 
because the long edges of the drawing board cannot be 
depended upon as being at right angles to the left hand edge 
of the board. In tracing, however, the T-square can be used as 



25 



Lettering — Study Plate I — Working Methods 



a straight edge for the inking of any straight line, whether 
horizontal, vertical, or diagonal. In using the T-square as 
a straight edge, keep its head away from the edges of the 
board, and make the top edge of the blade coincide with the 
line to be inked. 




Fig. 60. — Front View — Ruling a Horizontal Pencil Line. 

To Draw a Horizontal Pencil Line Thru a Given 
Point, Fig. 60, move the blade of the T-square until 
its top edge exactly coincides with the given point. With the 
T-square head held tightly against the left hand edge of 
the drawing board, and with the drawing pencil inclined 
slightly away from the body so as to bring its point close 
against the under side of the ruling edge of the blade. Fig. 61, 
proceed to draw the line, by moving the pencil away from 
the head of the T-square and inclining it slightly in the 
direction of motion. Never draw a horizontal line by moving 
the pencil towards the head of the T-square. In using the 
T-square as a straight edge for ruling pencil or ink lines, 
always draw along the blade from left to right. To trace 
a pencil line in ink. Figs. 66 and 67, the ruling edge of the 



blade of the T-square must be kept away from the pencil line 
about 1-32 of an inch and parallel to it, Fig. 62. This is 
necessary in order to hold the ruling pen in the correct posi- 
tion, and also to prevent the edge of the T-square from coming 
in contact with the freshly inked line. Practice in the manipu- 
lation of the T-square until it becomes second nature to do it 
correctly. 




Fig. 61. — Correct Position of Pencil when Ruling a Line. 

The Drawing Pencil is prepared for use by cutting 
back the wood from the end of the pencil, so as to leave 
about % of an inch of lead projecting Fig. 63. Do not cut 
the lead with the knife. It is customary to sharpen each 
end of the pencil, bringing one end to a round sharp conical 
point , and the other to a flat sharp chisel point. 
The Conical point, Fig. 64, is used for lettering and laying 
off distances. The chisel point. Fig. 65, is used for drawing. 
Sharpening both ends of the pencil will destroy the mark 
showing the hardness of the pencil. However, this difficulty 
may be overcome by cutting notches in the middle of the pencil 
to show whether the pencil is 2H, 5H, or some other grade. 
The chisel point has the advantage over the conical point for 



Lettering — Study Plate I — ^Working Methods 



26 



ruling lines, in that its edge keeps sharp much longer than 
does the conical point when used for this purpose. A 
dull pencil indicates a lazy draftman and should not be toler- 



a 



IL 



1. 




Fig. 62. — Correct Position of the Ruling Pen when Ruling a Line. 

ated. Do not bear down upon the pencil in ruling a line, 
as this will cut a groove in the paper, which will be impossible 
to erase. 





3 



Fig. 64. — Conical Point. 








:^ 



Fig. 63. — Preparation of Lead. 



Pig. 65.— Chisel Point. 

Thumb Tacks are used to attach the drawing paper 
and tracing cloth to the drawing board. For small sheets 
one tack is usually placed in each of the four corners, while 
for large sheets, extra tacks will have to be placed along 
their edges. Insert the thumb tacks so that their heads will 
come down tight against the board. A tack which is inserted 
with only a part of the head touching the board, will prove 
a source of annoyance to the careful draftsman. It will also 
catch against the working edge of the T-square blade and 
do considerable damage to it. 

The Ruling Pen is probably the most used instrument 
of all, and for this reason must be of the best quality. Its 
correct manipulation requires considerable practice. The pen 
is held in the hand in a similar manner to that used for holding 
the drawing pencil. The set screw on the pen, Fig. 66, is held 
turned away from the body. The tip of the forefinger rests 
on the outside blade of the pen, just touching the set screw. 
The thumb and second finger rest in a natural position on 
the inner blade. None of the fingers should be cramped or 



27 



Lettkring — Study Plate I— Working IMethods 



stiff, but should be kept as straight as possible. In ruling an 
inked line, Fig. 66-67, the axis of the pen should be kept 
perpendicular to the paper, with the rear blade in contact 




Pig. 66. — Front View — Ruling an Ink Line. 




Fig. 67. — End View — Ruling an Ink Line. 

with the straight edge. This position will throw both nibs 
of the pen into contact with the surface of the paper, and 



at the same time, keep them away from the under side of the 
straight edge. Fig. 62. Always start the pen moving just 
as soon as it touches the tracing cloth, and keep it moving 
with the top of the pen inclined slightly in the direction in 
which the line is being drawn. Just before the end of the line 
is reached, the pen should be brought perpendicular to the 
cloth, and when the end of the line is reached it should be 
lifted from the cloth at once. 

Always look ahead in drawing a line either with the 
pencil or the drawing pen. Be sure to fix in mind the location 
of the end of the line, and in this way prepare yourself to 
stop the pen as the line is finished. It is very poor form on 
the draftsman's part to start or stop a line at any other place 
than the exact end. In starting or stopping a line, whose 
ends touch another line, which has been inked, great care 
must be taken to make the intersection of the two lines sharp 
and distinct. At the junction of two lines, always move 
the p.en without hesitation in order to avoid a blot at their 
intersection. Do. not allow the pen to be stationary a single 
instant upon the tracing cloth in starting or stopping an 
mk line. If this precaution is not followed, a blot will be 
the result. 

Never attempt to draw any line with the nibs of the 
pen tightly closed together. The thickness or thinness of 
the mk line is always determined by the opening between the 
nibs of the pen, provided that the pen is sharp, that the 
outside of the points are scrupulously clean, and that no dried 
mk has been allowed to accumulate on the inside of the nibs 
In setting a pen to draw a certain width of line always test 
It by actually drawing a line on a separate piece of paper 
before using it on the drawing proper. In order to obtain 
the original setting of the pen after it has been opened for 
cleaning, while in use, it is extremely important to follow this 
precaution. A drawing which shows a non-uniformity in 



I 



Lettering — Study Plate I — ^Working IMethods 



28 



the widths of similar lines, shows a lack of care with respect 
to this precaution. Do not bear down upon the pen in ruling 
a line. 

In Filling the pen, do not dip it into the ink bottle, 
but use the quill attached to the bottle stopper to transfer 
the ink from bottle to pen. Place the end of the ink quill 
between the blades of the pen and allow the ink to run from 
the body of the quill into the pen. Do not fill the pen to 
more than 14" ^^ height for ordinary work. Fig. 63, until 
you become expert in its use. In drawing long lines, the pen 
should contain enough ink so that the entire line may be 
drawn without refilling. If the pen runs dry before the end 
of the line is reached, refill and by starting back along the 
part of the line already inked, taking care to follow it exactly 
a junction can be made that cannot be detected. 

Each time the pen is laid aside, and occasionally while 
the pen is in use, a blotter should be run between the nibs 
to remove all the ink which may be left in the pen. Also 
after refilling the pen, and before starting to use it, rub 
off any ink which may have collected on the outside of the 
nibs. "When thru using the pen, it should be immediately and 
thoroughly cleaned, inside and out. 

In Ruling Horizontal Lines with either the draw- 
ing pencil or ruling pen, the lines should always be drawn 
from left to right. In ruling vertical lines the pencil or 
ruling pen should draw the line by moving away from the 
body of the draftsman, and never towards him. In ruling 
diagonal lines, if the line is inclined upwards to the right, 
when starting at the lower end, the drawing pen or pencil 
must move upward along the proposed line and away from the 
body. If the line slopes upward to the left, the line should 
be drawn by making the drawing pencil or pen move down- 
ward along the proposed line and towards the body. In the 
actual ruling of a line do not rest the entire hand upon the 



straight edge but allow only the ends of the third and fourth 
fingers to slide lightly along the surface of the straight edge. 
Careful attention to this point will go a long way towards 
acquiring a command of the drawing pen and pencil. 

The Scale is used only for laying off distances which 
may be done either by laying the scale on the drawing and 
pointing off the required distance with a sharp round pointed 
pencil, or prick punch. Fig. 68, or by holding the scale in the 
left hand and taking off the required distances with the 
dividers held in the other hand. Fig. 69. The first method 
will be treated here and the other later on. In laying off 
dimensions with the scale, by laying it upon the drawing and 




Fig. 68. — Front View — TakiBg off Scale Dimensions with Pencil. 

pointing off the required distances, Fig. 68, always endeavor 
to point off as many dimensions as possible without changing 
the position of the scale. At the required scale division 
make a dot on the paper with a conical pointed pencil. In 
doing this always keep the axis of the pencil in line with the 
division line on the scale, and allow the point of the pencil to 
follow down the division groove until it comes into contact 
with the paper. Do not make a hole in the paper, or a 



29 



Lettering — Study Plate I — ^Working Methods 



larger dot than is necessary to be plainly visible. It is 
difficult to draw a line accurately thru the center of holes 
and large dots. For the present, the twelve inch scale as 
divided into 1-16 inches, will be the only one used. By the 
use of the eye these divisions can be further subdivided into 




Fig. 69. — Front View — Taking off Scale Dimensions with Dividers. 



l-32nds and l-64ths of an inch. In laying off distances, be 
careful to lay down the exact distance and not something 
pretty close to it. Accuracy at this point in the drawing will 
save an immense amount of trouble in working upon com- 
plicated drawings. Do not use the scale as a straight edge 
for drawing lines. 

The Pencil and Ink Erasers are valuable adjuncts 
to the draftsman's outfit. The draftsman, however, 
needs to be careful in their use, as otherwise he will get into 
a careless way of drawing, knowing that the wrong or unnec- 
essary lines can be easily erased. A draftsman with the eras- 
ing habit loses time on nearly every line he draws. The 



careful draftsman will have very little use for either kind 
of eraser, because he realizes that speed is not the result of 
erasing lines after they are once drawn. The use of an 
eraser on a drawing always increases the capacity of the 
drawing for collecting dirt. Hence in penciling a drawing, the 
lines which have to be erased, should be put in as lightly as 
possible. In using the ink eraser on the tracing cloth. 

Be Careful Not to Rub a Hole Thru the Cloth. If a blot 
is formed upon the cloth at any time, do not attempt 
to blot it up by laying a blotter down upon it; but with one 
corner of the blotter pick up as much of the wet ink as 
possible, without bringing the blotter into contact with the 
cloth, and then allow the rest to dry. Be sure that the blot 
is dry before starting to erase. If the blot is by itself and 
plenty of room is available, proceed to erase the ink with 
a cirucular ink eraser. When the ink is removed rub the 
erased surface of the cloth with the back of the finger nail 
or a piece of soapstone to a good polish. Then rub a little 
Pounce into it. By the use of these precautions, the surface 
of the cloth can be brought to its original ink taking qualities. 

The Erasing Shield is used in case it is necessary 
to erase a line, or a blot, located in a complicated part of the 
drawing. In using the shield, it is placed so that one of the 
holes provided in its surface comes over the part to be 
erased, while the rest of the shield protects the parts of the 
drawing immediately surrounding the part to be erased. 

The Steel Erasing Knife is never used except in extreme 
cases. Great care must be exercised in its use, otherwise ir- 
reparable damage will be done to the drawing. 

The Lettering upon a drawing consists of the main 
title for the drawing, the sub-titles for each part, the dimen- 
sion figures, arrow heads, feet and inch marks, finish marks. 



Lettering — Study Plate I — Plate Notation ' 30 

and all special notation and descriptive matter necessary to arm, and hand, as when such a position is once acquired one 

supplement the picture of the object as drawn. These various of the chief difBculties in turning out good lettering has 

kinds of lettering require different styles of lettering pens been overcome, 

for their correct rendering. The Plate Notation, Fig. 70, is to appear upon all 

The Gillott No. 303, or fine pointed pen, is best for study plates in exact accordance with the layout shown. The 

rendering the descriptive matter, dimension figures, feet and following course abbreviations are to be used :- 

inch marks, finish marks, etc. Agricultural (all courses) Agr. 

The Ball Point Pen, F, Leonard No. 521F, is best for ren- Architectural Arch. 

dering the main and sub-titles. Chemistry Chm. 

,.^ ,^ . . ■■ , .• • I, 1 • Civil (all courses) C. E. 

As some difficulty is experienced at times m breaking t^t . • i n -n 

•^ , ^ , ^ ,11 Electrical E. E. 

in a new fine pointed pen to do good work, the student should Electrochemical Echm. 

provide himself with a collection of pens of several kinds Industrial Chemistry .ZZZZZZZ".. I. Chm' 

and sizes. He will then have a wide range from which to Industrial Engineering (all courses) '.. I. E. 

choose a pen which is just right. STUB PENS are not recom- Mechanical (all courses) M. E. 

mended, as it takes an expert to turn out good lettering with Mining (all courses) M. M. 

them. In manipulating the lettering pen do not bear down Physics Phy. 

upon it, as this not only causes a varying width in the ^^^ yerticarGothic'Zpitals ' for "the "plate number, and 

letter outline, but also causes the pen to dig into the surface .^^^.^^^ ^^^^.^ ^^^.^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ p^^^^ notation. 

of the drawing. In lettering always hold the penholder be- 

tween the thumb and first finger. Keep the first finger Schedule of Operations. 

straight and do not grip the penholder any tighter than is 

actually necessary to guide the pen. Do not rest any more of Placing and Aligning the Drawing. 

the hand on the surface of the drawing than is absolutely 1. Place Adams' letter plate 18 upon the drawing board 

necessary. so that the long sides of the plate are parallel to the long edges 

The chief essential in good lettering is a whole arm move- of the board and the top and left hand edges of the plate 

ment rather than a finger and wrist movement. Always hold are about one inch from the corresponding edges of the 

the pen in the same position when drawing horizontal, vertical, board and approximately parallel to them, 

inclined, or curved strokes. Do not try to letter with too 2. Insert a thumb tack in the center of the left hand 

much ink upon the pen. When using the lettering pen, clean edge of the plate as close to the edge of the plate as possible, 

it frequently with a soft cloth, at the same time work the 3. With the head of the T-square held tightly against 

nibs back and forth to get the dried particles of ink out the left hand edge of the drawing board adjust both the 

from between them. The student should practice with the T-square and plate until some horizontal line upon the plate 

lettering pen to secure an easy natural position of the body, coincides with the top edge of the T-square. 



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Kind of Plate. Stock Size, of Sheet. Trimmed Size, of Sheet. Border Line Dimensions. Margin. 

FULL SIZE DRAWING. 15 X 22 13^ X 19^ 12 X 18 j 

MALr •• •• 11X15 iolxiai 9X12 7 



LETTER PLATES. 



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Fig. 70. — Plate Notation. 
31 



Lettering — Study Plate I — Schedule of Operations 



32 



4. Insert a thumb tack in the center of the right hand 
edge of the plate as close to the edge as possible. 

Placing and Preparing the Tracing Cloth. 

5. Double a 15" x 22" sheet of tracing cloth together 
so that its short edges coincide. Smooth out the fold and 
slit the cloth along the same with a sharp pen knife. Keep 
one of the small 11" x 15" sheets out for use and put the 
other away. 

6. Place the 11" x 15" sheet of tracing cloth over the 
letter plate. Keep the dull side uppermost and see that there 
is an equal margin of cloth outside of the border line all 
around. Keep the edges of the cloth parallel to this border 
line. 

7. Insert a thumb tack in each of the four corners 
of the cloth. In inserting the tack, keep the point within Vs 
of an inch of the edge of the cloth. Be sure that the cloth is 
tightly stretched over the surface of the plate. 

8. Sprinkle a small quantity of the Pounce over the sur- 
face of the cloth. Rub it in well and then brush off all 
of the excess. 

Border Line. Follow the layout sheet, Pig. 71, as the re- 
maining operations are performed. 

9. Set the ruling pen to draw a line nearly 1-16" wide. 
Fill it with a i/4" column of back drawing ink. Practice 
drawing lines with it upon a separate piece of tracing cloth 
or drawing paper so as to become acquainted with its 
peculiarities. 

10. With the drawing pen set and inked as in (9), with 
the head of the T-square held against the left hand edge 
of the drawing board and with the top edge of its blade 
parallel to and 1-32 of an inch below the top border line of 
the letter plate, proceed to ink the line upon the cloth. Start 
and stop the line exactly at each of its respective ends. 



11. Allow the line just inked to dry. Then proceed to 
rule in the lower border line in the same manner. 

12. Allow the line just inked to dry. Then proceed to 
ink the right hand border line. In doing this do not place 
the head of the T-square against the bottom edge of the 
board, but use the T-square blade as a straight edge, keeping 
it parallel to and 1-32 of an inch away from the line to be 
inked. Be very careful about starting and stopping the 
line, in order that its ends may neither fall short of, nor 
run past the ends of the two ink lines previously drawn. The 
ends of the lines should just touch in order to form a neat 
corner in the border line. 

13. Repeat (12) for the left hand border line. 

14. Clean the pen and put it away. 

Trimming Line. 

15. Using the scale and 2H pencil lay off a distance 
of %" from each end of the left hand border line. This 
distance is to be laid off at right angles to the border line and 
towards the outside edge of the sheet. 

16. Proceed in a similar manner for the remaining three 
parts of the border line. 

17. With the T-square and 2H pencil proceed to rule 
a light line the entire length of the sheet and thru the points 
laid off to the left of the left hand border line. 

18. Proceed in a similar manner, to draw light pencil 
lines the entire length of the sheet thru the remaining re- 
spective pairs of points. 

Drawing Lettering Guide Lines. 

19. Using the edge of the scale, which is divided into l-16ths 
of an inch, place its zero mark over the top border line and 
make the working edge of the scale coincide with the left hand 
border line of the plate. 



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Fig. 71. — Layout Sheet for Study Plate. 1. 
33 



I' 

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I 



J 



Lettering — Study Plate I — Schedule op Operations 



34 



20. Using a 2H conical pointed pencil, proceed to point 
off the distances called for on the layout sheet, Fig. 71, for the 
spacing of the horizontal guide lines shown thereon. Work 
from the top border line down, and do not move the scale until 
all of the distances have been pointed off. Make light pencil 
dots upon the tracing cloth to indicate the several distances. 

21. With the T-square and the 2H chisel edged pencil, 
proceed to draw light horizontal guide lines thru each of the 
points of division. Do not extend the pencil lines beyond the 
end border lines of the plate. 

22. With the scale and 2H pencil measure in i/4" from 
each end of the left hand border line, and draw lightly the 
vertical line A-B. 

23. With the scale and 2H pencil measure up along 
this line a distance of %" from its point of intersection with 
each of the bottom horizontal guide lines, of each guide 
line set. 

24. With the T-square and 2H pencil draw a light hori- 
zontal guide line about % of an inch long thru each of these 
points of division to extend %" on each side of the vertical 
line A-B. 

25. With the ball point pen and black drawing ink, 
proceed to number each of the guide line sets as called for upon 
the layout sheet, Fig. 71. Make the last figure of each number 
fall upon the vertical line A-B. Be careful to keep each 
of the figures within the horizontal guide lines that were 
drawn to limit their heights. Follow line 12 of the letter 
plate underneath the tracing cloth for the actual drawing 
of the figures. 

Tracing Adams ' Letter Plate 18. 

26. Eemove the thumb tacks from the tracing cloth. Do 
not disturb the position of the letter plate. Move the tracing 
cloth to make the first set of horizontal guide lines on the 



tracing cloth coincide with the imaginary horizontal guide lines 
of line No. " 1, " on letter plate 18. At the same time keep the 
left and right hand border lines on the tracing exactly over 
the corresponding border lines on the letter plate. In order 
to keep the tracing cloth in its proper place, place a thumb 
tack in each of its four corners. Keep the tack holes outside 
of the pencil trimming line. This procedure is to be followed 
each time a new line is to be traced from the letter plate un- 
derneath, upon the tracing cloth. 

27. With the ball point pen proceed to trace in the first 
line of letter plate 18. 

28. See (26) and trace line "3" of letter plate 18, into 
guide line set "3" on the tracing cloth. 

29. See (26) and trace line "5" of letter plate 18, into 
guide line set "5" on the tracing cloth. 

30. See (26) and trace line "9" of letter plate 18, into 
guide line set "7" on the tracing cloth. Do not trace the 
arrows which show the direction of the strokes, nor the figures 
which show the order in which the strokes are to be made. 
Do not join the strokes of the letters together but leave them 
as shown on the letter plate. 

31. See (26 and 30) and trace line "13" of letter plate 
18, into guide line set "9" on the tracing cloth. 

32. See (26) and trace line "15" of letter plate 18, into 
guide line set "11" on the tracing cloth. Use Gillott No. 
303 pen for this and also for (33). 

33. See (26) and trace line "17" of letter plate 18, 
into guide line set "12" on the tracing cloth. 

Tracing Adams' Letter Plate 19. 

34. Remove the thumb tacks from both the tracing and 
the letter plate. See (1, 2, 3, 4) and attach Adams' letter 
plate 19 to the drawing board. 



35 



Lettering — Study Plate I — Schedule op Operations 



35. See (26) and trace line "1" of letter plate 19 into 
guide line set "2" on the tracing cloth. Use ball point pen. 

36. See (26) and trace line "3" of letter plate 19 into 
guide line set "4" on the tracing cloth. 

37. See (26) and trace line "5" of letter plate 19 into 
guide line set "6" on the tracing. 

38. See (26 and 30) and trace line "9" of letter plate 
19 into guide line set " 8 " on the tracing. 

39. See (26 and 30) and trace line "13" of letter plate 
19 into guide line set " 10 " on the tracing. 

40. See (26) and trace line "15" of letter plate 19 
into guide line set "13" on the tracing. Use Gillott No. 
303 pen for (40, 41, and 42). 

41. See (26) and trace line "17" of letter plate 19 
into .guide line set " 14 " on the tracing. 

42. See (26) and trace line 19 of letter plate 19 into 
guide line set "15" on the tracing. 

Plate Notation. 

43. Using the scale and 2H conical pointed pencil 
measure down %" and ^" respectively from the lower border 
line of the plate. See Figs. 70 and 71 for the plate notation. 

44. Using the T-square and 2H chisel edged pencil, draw 
two light, horizontal guide lines the entire length of the plate. 

45. Using the scale and 2H conical pointed pencil, lay 
off along these guide lines a distance of I/2" and 9", starting 
in each case from the lower, left hand corner of the plate 
border line. In the right hand corner of the plate, measure 
up from the top border line %" and 5-16" respectively. 

46. Using the T-square and 2H chisel edged pencil, draw 
two light guide lines to extend 3" to the left, starting above 
the upper right hand corner of the border line. 



47. Measure in a distance of 2I/2" along these guide 
lines, starting from the point in (46). 

48. With the ball point pen and drawing ink, proceed 
to render the word "PLATE 1" in vertical Gothic capital 
letters. Start at the point laid off in (47). 

49. "With the Gillott No. 303 pen and drawing ink, start 
from the I/2" distance, laid off on the two lower guide lines, 
and render the month, day, and year that the plate is finished, 
in inclined Gothic capital letters. This date is always that 
upon which the plate is due, as stated upon the posted work 
schedules. 

50. Starting from the 9" distance, render the last name, 
initials, course abbreviation, section number, and catalogue 
number of the course in inclined Gothic capital letters. With 
the pencil eraser, erase the pencil guide lines used in the 
lettering of the plate notation. 

51. Remove the thumb tacks from the tracing and letter 
plate. Trim the tracing cloth along the pencil trimming line 
drawn in (15, 16, 17 and 18). The trimmed tracing should 
measure IO14" wide by 143^" long. HAND THE TRACING 
TO YOUR INSTRUCTOR PROMPTLY WHEN IT IS CALL- 
ED FOR AND DO NOT ROLL OR FOLD IT. 



STUDY PLATE 2. 

Plate Analysis. This plate is designed to give 
practice in the rendering in ink upon drawing paper, of the 
elementary strokes of the vertical Gothic capitals, numbers, 
and small letters, in the combining of these elementary strokes 
in a certain numerical order to render the completed letter 
forms ; in the rendering of arrow heads, feet and inch marks, 
and in the use of both fine and ball point pens. 



Letterenq — Study Plate 2 — Schedule op Operations 



36 



The Size of the Finished Plate is to be 11" x 151/2". 

The Plate Requires an inked rendering of Adams' Letter 
Plate 18. 

The Equipment Required, consists of drawing board, T- 
square, pen-holder, ball-point pen, fine point pen, bottle of ink, 
pen wiper, thumb tacks, architect's scale, 2H pencil, sand pa- 
per pad, pencil eraser, ink eraser, blotter and Adams' Letter 
plate 18. 

Schedule of Operations. 

Placing and Aligning the Letter Plate. 

1. Place Adams' letter plate 18 on the drawing board 
so that the long sides of the plate are parallel to the long 
edges of the board, and the top and left hand edges of the 
plate are about 1" from the corresponding edges of the board 
and approximately parallel to them. Insert a thumb tack in 
the upper left hand corner of the plate. 

2. With the head of the T-square held tightly against 
the left hand edge of the drawing board, adjust both the T- 
square and the plate until some horizontal line upon the plate 
coincides with the top edge of the T-square. 

3. Insert a thumb tack in each of the remaining corners 
of the letter plate. 

Plate Notation. 

4. Using the scale and 2H conical pointed pencil, mea- 
sure down 14" and %" respectively from the lower border 
line of the plate. See Fig. 70 for the plate notation. 

5. Using the T-square and 2H chisel edged pencil, draw 
two light horizontal guide lines the entire length of the plate. 



6. Using the scale and 2H conical pointed pencil, lay off 
along these guide lines a distance of y<^' and 9", starting in 
each case from the lower left hand corner of the plate border 
line. 

7. Using the T-square and 2H chisel edged pencil, draw 
two light guide lines to project \" to the right of the end of the 
plate number, as given at the top of the plate, and make these 
lines correspond to the imaginary guide lines of the word 
"Plate," as printed there. 

8. Measure a distance of y^' to the right of the figure 
"8," and using the ball point lettering pen and drawing 
ink, print in a vertical figure 2. 

9. Using a Gillott No. 303 lettering pen and drawing ink, 
and starting from the %" distance laid off on the two lower 
pencil guide lines, print in the month, day, and the year that 
the plate is finished, in inclined capital letters. This date is 
always that upon which the plate is due, as posted upon the 
work schedules. 

10. Starting from the 9" distance, print in the last name, 
initials, abbreviation for course, section number and catalogue 
number of the course, in inclined capital letters. With the 
pencil eraser, erase the guide lines used in lettering; the plate 
notation. 

Ink Rendering. 

11. With the ball point pen and drawing ink proceed 
to ink line 2 of the letter plate to correspond to line 1. 

12. Ink line 4 to correspond to line 3. 

13. Ink line 6 to correspond to line 5. 

14. Ink line 10 to correspond to line 8, using line 9 as 
a guide to indicate the direction and the order of inking the 
elementary strokes for each letter. 



37 



Lettering — Study Plates 2-3 — Schedule op Operations 



15. Ink line 14: to correspond to line 12, using line 13 as 
a guide to indicate the direction and the order of inking the 
elementary strokes for each letter. 

16. Using the Gillott No. 303 pen and drawing ink, pro- 
ceed to ink line 16 to correspond to line 15. 

17. Ink line 17 to correspond to the first half of line 15. 

18. Ink line 18 to correspond to the first half of line 
15 and the last half of line 17. 

19. With a pencil eraser, clean off the pencil guide 
lines and remove the thumb tacks. 

20. HAND THE PLATE PROMPTLY TO YOUR IN- 
STRUCTOR WHEN CALLED FOR, AND DO NOT ROLL OR 
FOLD IT. 



STUDY PLATE 3. 

Plate Analysis. This plate is designed to give prac- 
tice in the rendering in ink upon drawing paper of the ele- 
mentary strokes of the inclined Gothic capitals, numbers, 
and small letters ; in the combining of these elementary strokes 
in a certain numerical order, in order to render the completed 
letter forms ; in the rendering of arrow heads, feet and inch 
marks, and in the use of both the fine and ball point pens. 

Size of the Finished Plate is to be 11" x I51/2". 

The Plate Requires an inked rendering of Adams' letter 
plate 19. 

The Equipment Required consists of drawing board, T- 
square, pen-holder, ball point pen, fine point pen, bottle of 
black drawing ink, pen wiper, thumb tacks, Adams' letter plate 
19, architect's scale 2H pencil, sand paper pad, pencil eraser, 
ink eraser, and blotter. 
Schedule of Operations. 



1 — 7. For steps from 1 to 7 inclusive, follow the cor- 
responding steps in the outline for study plate 2. 

8. Measure a distance of i/4" to the right of the figure 
9, and, using the ball point lettering pen and drawing ink, 
print in a vertical figure 3. 

9 — 18. For steps from 9 to 18 inclusive, follow the cor- 
responding steps in the outline for study plate 2. 

19. Ink line 20 to correspond to line 19. 

20 — 21. For steps 20 and 21 follow the corresponding 
steps in the outline for study plate 2. 



STUDY PLATE 4. 

Plate Analysis. This plate is designed to give practice in : 

(a) The development of correct working methods 
in the use of the triangles, in the drawing of a 
vertical line of a given length thru a given point, in the draw- 
ing of a vertical line with its lower end resting upon a pre- 
viously drawn horizontal line, in the preliminary suggestion 
of large letters as an essential part of their complete rendering, 
in the suggestion of a letter drawn freehand, in the study of 
the fundamental masses of letters, and in the mechanical 
spacing of suggested letters. 

(b) The placing and aligning of drawing paper, the 
layout of a pencil trimming line, the layout of a pencil border 
line, the inking of a pencil border line upon the drawing paper, 
the layout and ink rendering of the plate notation, the layout 
and drawing of horizontal pencil lettering guide lines, the 
construction of a mechanical spacing scale for lettering, the 
mechanical spacing of letters preliminary to their construction, 
and the drawing of both vertical and inclined letter spacing 
guide lines. 



Lettering — Study Plate 4 — ^Working Methods 



38 



(c) The Pencil Suggestion of vertical Gothic capitals, 
numbers, and small letters ; of inclined Gothic capitals, num- 
bers, and small letters ; of vertical Roman capitals, numbers, 
and small letters ; and of inclined Roman capitals, numbers, 
and small letters. 

(d) The completion of the suggested letters and their 
subsequent rendering in ink. 

The Size of the Finished Plate is to be lOi^" x 143^", 
when trimmed. 

The Plate Requires a pencil and inked rendering to be 
made upon white normal paper from Adams' letter plates 
4 and 5. 

The Equipment Required consists of drawing board, 
sheet of 15" x 22" white normal paper, thumb tacks, archi- 
tect's scale, 2H pencil, ruling pen, bottle of ink, ball point pen 
fine point pen, pen holder, pen wiper, blotter, pencil sharpener, 
pencil eraser, 30 x 60 degree triangle, and one each of Adams' 
letter plates 4, 5, 7, 9, and 11. 

Working Methods. 

The Triangles are used in conjunction with the T- 
square for drawing all vertical pencil lines and most of the 
vertical ink lines upon a drawing or tracing. It is very essen- 
tial that ease in the manipulation of the T-square — triangle 
combination be acquired as soon as possible. Fig. 72. 

In using the triangle to draw vertical lines, Fig. 73, one of 
the edges which forms the right angle of the triangle, — 
usually the short one with the 30 x 60 degree triangle, — is 
always placed in contact with the top edge of the T-square 
blade. The rule which requires that all vertical lines be 
drawn upward and away from the body of the draftsman and 
never downward towards his body, makes it necessary to 
keep the vertical edge of the triangle always facing the head 
of the T-square. If the triangle is not placed with its verti- 



cal edge facing the T-square head, but instead facing towards 
the right hand edge of the drawing board, the vertical line 




72. — Front View — T-square Triangle Combination. 



can be drawn only in a downward direction which is not 
only undesirable, but also very awkward. Never use the tri- 
angle in contact with the lower edge of the T-square blade. 




Fig. 73. — End View — Drawing Vertical Line. 



39 



Lettering — Study Plate 4 — "Working Methods 



To Draw a Vertical Line of a Given Length Thru a 
Given Point, Fig. 73, first place the ruling edge of the T-square 
a short distance from the lower end of the proposed line but 
never to intersect it, so that when the triangle is in position 
with one of its edges in contact with the ruling edge of the 
T-square, the other, or vertical edge, will coincide with 
as much of the line as possible. Second, place the triangle 
with the longest of its edges in a vertical position and exactly 
coinciding with the centre line of the point through which the 
line is to be drawn, at the same time keeping the horizontal 
edge of the triangle, in contact with the ruling edge of the T- 
square. With the left hand grasp both the T-square blade 
and the triangle as shown, keeping the head of the T-square 
tight against the edge of the drawing board and the lower 
edge of the triangle tight against the blade of the T-square. 
With the pencil in the right hand, proceed to draw the 
required line, by always keeping the point of the pencil close 
against the vertical edge of the triangle, moving it away from 
the blade of the T-square and never towards it. 

To Draw a Vertical Line Which Shall Start From a Given 
Horizontal Line, Fig. 73, first, place the ruling edge of the T- 
square a short distance below the horizontal line but never to 
coincide with it ; second, place the triangle in the position 
described for drawing a vertical line thru a point and proceed 
to draw a line. 

Preliminary Suggestion of Large Size Letters as an Essen- 
tial Part of the Complete Rendering. The fundamental prin- 
ciple for success in any kind of freehand drawing requires that 
the main outline of the object be sketched in before attempting 
to render any part of the details and also that in sketching in 
the main outlines, no attempt be made to draw them full at first, 
but to suggest parts of the line and repeat the process until the 
entire line can be drawn in at a single stroke. The details are 



suggested in a similar manner until finally they can be rendered 
in their entirety. These same principles apply with equal 
force to large freehand lettering. 

To Suggest a Large Freehand Letter, as shown 
on Adams' letter plate 4, lines 5, 6, 13 and 14 and 
plate 5, lines 3, 7, 11, and 18, it is first necessary to draw two ' 
horizontal pencil guide lines to limit the top and bottom ex- 
tremities of the letter. The width of the letter is then laid 
off upon these horizontal guide lines, usually with the eye and 
without the use of mechanical aids. Thru the points which 
were laid off to indicate the letter width, short vertical guide 
lines are drawn, to intersect the top and bottom horizontal 
guide lines. Both horizontal and vertical guide lines are to 
be drawn mechanically using the T-square and triangle. After 
the guide lines are drawn, the principal features of the out- 
side outlines of the letter are suggested in pencil, then the 
thickness of the stems of the letter is indicated, by a partial 
suggestion of the inside outline. After the suggested letter 
has been corrected, the suggested parts of the outline are 
connected and completely rendered. The suggested portions 
of the inside outline of the letter are connected in the same 
manner and the inside outline completely rendered. When 
the outlines have been completely rendered, the space between 
the outlines is filled in and the letter completed as a whole. 

The Fundamental Masses of the letters as shown 
on letter plate 4, lines 3, 4, 11, 12 and letter plate 5, lines 2, 
6, 10 and 17 must be firmly fixed in the mind, otherwise the 
various letters cannot be successfully suggested. The forma- 
tion of the letters from their elementary masses is shown on 
letter plate 4, lines 7, 8, 15 and 16, and letter plate 5, lines 4, 
8, 12 and 19. These various lines should be carefully studied 
in detail by the student before he attempts to suggest any 
of the letters. 



Lettering — Study Plate 4 — Schedule of Operations 



40 



The Spacing of the Suggested Letters is largely a matter 
of judgment in the equalizing of the white spaces between 
adjacent letters with the black fundamental masses of the 
letters themselves. Hence the added importance of intimate 
knowledge of the fundamental mass of each of the letters. 

Schedule of Operations. 
Placing and Aligning Drawing Paper. 

1. Fold a 15" X 22" sheet of white "Normal" paper 
so that its 15" edges coincide. Smooth the fold and slit with 
a sharp knife. Keep one of the 11" x 15" sheets out for use 
and put the other away. Place the 11" x 15" sheet of drawing 
paper upon the drawing board, so that the long sides of the 
plate are parallel to the long edges of the board and the top 
and left hand edges of the plate are about one inch from the 
corresponding edges of the board and approximately parallel 
to them. Insert a thumb tack in each corner of the plate, 
keeping the point of the tack within 1-8" of the edges of the 
sheet. 

Drawing Trimming Line. 

2. With the T-square and 2H chisel edge pencil, draw 
a light horizontal line the entire length of the plate within 
14," of its top edge. See layout sheet, Fig. 74. 

3. With the T-square, 30 x 60 degree triangle and 2H 
pencil, draw a light vertical line the entire width of the plate 
and within 1-8" of its left hand edge. 

4. Using the edge of the scale which is divided into 
l-16ths, with its zero mark, placed at the point of intersection 
of the top and left hand trimming lines drawn in (2) and (3), 
proceed to lay off a distance of 14%" along the top trimming 
line and 101/4" along the left hand trimming line. 

5. With the T-square and 2H pencil, draw a light, horiz- 
ontal line the entire length of the plate, thru the last point 
laid off in (4). 



6. With the T-square, 30x60 degree triangle and 2H pen- 
cil, draw a light vertical trimming line the entire width of the 
plate thru the first point laid off in (4). If the trimming 
lines, as drawn, do not fall entirely upon the plate, place the 
plate so that they will and redraw them. 

Drawing Border Line. 

7. With the scale and 2H pencil, measure in a distance 
of %" from and perpendicular to each of the four trimming 
lines just drawn. 

8. With the T-square and 2H chisel edged pencil, draw 
light horizontal lines thru each of the points laid off perpen- 
dicular to the top and bottom trimming lines respectively. 
Start and stop these lines within 1-2" of each of the end trim- 
ming lines. 

9. With the T-square, 30x60 degree triangle, and 2H 
chisel edged pencil, draw light vertical lines thru each of the 
points laid off perpendicular to the end trimming lines. Start 
and stop these lines upon the bottom and top horizontal lines 
drawn in (8). 

Inking Border Line. 

10. Using the T-square and with the ruling pen set for 
a line 1-16" wide and filled with black drawing ink, proceed 
to ink the top border line. Start and stop the line exactly 
upon the two pencil border lines at each end of the plate. 

11. In like manner ink in the lower border line. 

12. Using the T-square as a straight edge, with its head 
adjacent to the lower edge of the drawing board, but not 
touching it, proceed to ink in the right hand border line. Start 
and stop the line exactly at the respective ends of the horizon- 
tal border lines previously inked, in order to make the corners 
sharp. 



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Fig. 74. — Layout Sheet for Study Plate 4. 
4 



Lettering — Study Plate 4 — Schedule of Operations 



42' 



13. In like maimer ink in the left hand border line. 

14. Clean the pen and put it away. 

Plate Notation. 

15. With scale, 2H pencil and T-square, proceed to draw 
in the horizontal guide lines in the top and bottom margins 
of the plate for the plate notation. Follow the layout sheet, 
Fig. 74. 

16. With the ball point pen, ink in the plate number, 
which is "4." 

17. With the GiUott 303 pen, ink in the due date of the 
plate, the name, etc. 

Drawing Horizontal Pencil Guide Lines For Lettering. 

18. Using the 2H conical pointed pencil and with the 
zero of the scale placed over the upper left hand corner of the 
border line, point off along the left hand border line the di- 
mensions given on the layout sheet. Fig. 74, for the spacing of 
the horizontal lettering guide lines. Work from the top of the 
sheet downward and point off as many divisions as possible 
without moving the scale. Exercise care to get the divisions 
exactly as called for. 

19. Using the T-square and the pencil with a sharp chisel 
edge, proceed to draw thru these several points of division, 
light horizontal guide lines the full length of the sheet, as 
included between the two vertical lines forming part of the 
border line. 

20. With the scale, measure in 1-8" from the left hand 
border line and draw a light vertical line to interesect all of 
the horizontal guide lines drawn. 

21. Measure up along this vertical line from its point 
of intersection with the bottom line of each guide line set a 
distance of %". 



22. With the T-square and peneU, draw a light horizontal 
line y^' long thru each of these points, starting the line in each 
case at the left hand border line. 

23. With the conical pointed pencil, print in the number 
of each guide line set from 1 to 8 inclusive. The top guide line 
set is to be numbered 1. Use vertical figures and keep their 
axes upon the vertical line drawn in (20) and their top and 
bottom parts in contact with the guide lines drawn in (22) 
and the bottom horizontal guide line of each guide line set. 
This will make the figures 1-8" in height. 

24. With the scale, measure in 14" from the left border 
line and draw a light vertical line to intersect all the hori- 
zontal guide lines. Use the T-square and 30x60 degree triangle 
to do this. This line represents the starting point for each 
line of letters. 

Construction of Mechanical Spacing Scale. 

25. Upon the edge of a separate, small piece of drawing 
paper, measure off the exact distance, %", which is equal to 
the height of the proposed letters. With a sharp pencil, pro- 
ceed to divide this distance as laid off, into 8 equal parts, or 
units. 

Mechanical Spacing of Letters Preliminary to Their Con- 
struction. 

26. The figures given under each letter and each space 
between two adjacent letters on Adams' letter plate 7, lines 1 
and 2 represent the number of units which must be laid off to 
give the width of the letter or of the space. 

27. Starting from the vertical line, as drawn in (24), 
lay off in succession along the bottom horizontal guide line of 
guide line set 1, the distances representing the widths of the 
letters and the spaces between them, as given for the Gothic 
alphabet of capital letters on Adams ' letter plate 7, lines 1 and 
2. Use the paper scale of (25) to measure these distances. 



43 



Lettering — Study Plate 4 — Schedule of Operations 



Thus with, the zero of the scale over the vertical line drawn in 
(24), lay off 8 units, or the whole length of the scale, to repre- 
sent the width of the "A", then move the scale along until its 
zero point is over the last point laid off, and lay off 2% units of 
the scale to represent the space between the A and the B. From 
this point, lay off 7 units to represent the width of the "B" 
and proceed in the same way for the remaining letters of the 
alphabet up to and including the "Z", but not the "&". These 
distances will have to be laid off in an accurate manner, as 
otherwise the line of letters will project beyond the right hand 
border line of the plate, in which case the line must be re- 
spaced until it does come wholly within the end border lines 
without touching them. 

28. With the T-square, 30-60 triange, and chisel edged 
pencil, draw a short, light, vertical guide line thru each of 
these points of division to intersect both the top and bottom 
horizontal guide lines of each of the guide line sets 1 and 5. 
At the same time draw a line not more than 1-16" long to inter- 
sect the bottom horizontal guide line of each of the guide line 
sets 3 and 7. Use the triangle so that each time the vertical 
guide line is drawn for guide line set 1, the short vertical 
guide line, and the two short intersection lines can be drawn 
for the guide line sets 5-3-7 respectively. To do this, it will 
be necessary to place the short side of the triangle in contact 
with the T-square, leaving the long side available for drawing 
the vertical lines. 

29. Starting from the vertical line again, lay off in suc- 
cession along the bottom horizontal guide line of guide line 
set 2, the distances representing the widths of the Gothic num- 
bers from 1 to inclusive and the spaces between them, as 
given on Adams' letter plate 7, line 2. Use the paper scale to 
measure the distances in an accurate manner. At the end of 
the "0", space 214 imits to the right and follow this by the 



width of the " & " as given in line 2, letter plate 7. Then space 
8 units more to the right. 

30. Starting from the last point laid off in (29), lay off 
in succession along the bottom guide line of guide line set 2, 
the distances representing the spacing of the center lines of the 
Roman small letters from "a" to "z" inclusive, as given in 
line 1, Adams' letter plate 11. If the line runs beyond right 
hand border line, respace until it does not. 

31. With the T-square, 30-60 triangle, and chisel edged 
pencil, draw a short, light, vertical line thru each of these 
points of division, to intersect both the top and bottom horizon- 
tal guide lines of each of the guide line sets 2 and 6. At the 
same time draw a line not more than 1-16" long to intersect 
the bottom horizontal guide line of the guide line sets 4 and 8. 
Use the triangle so that each time the vertical guide line is 
drawn for guide line set 2, the short vertical guide line and 
the two short intersection lines can be drawn for the guide 
line sets 6-4-8 respectively. 

32. Below both the top and bottom horizontal guide line 
of guide line sets 2-4-6-8, lay off three of the paper scale divi- 
sions. 

33. With the T-square and pencil, draw light horizontal 
guide lines thru these points. These lines are to extend only 
the length of the small letter alphabet as previously laid off, 
and are not to extend under that part of the guide lines drawn 
for the number. 

34. With the T-square, 30-60 triangle and pencil, pro- 
ceed to draw thru the points of division indicated upon the 
bottom horizontal guide line, of guide line sets 3, 4, 7, and 8, 
light guide lines inclined at an angle of 60° with the horizontal 
guide lines, and to intersect the extreme top and bottom hori- 
zontal guide line of each set. In drawing the inclined lines, 
place the short 90° edge of the triangle in contact with the 



Lettering — Study Plate 4 — Schedule of Operations 



44 



ruling edge of the T-square so that the inclined edge of the 
triangle will face the head of the T-square. This position of 
the triangle will admit of the inclined guide lines being drawn 
upwards from left to right, which is the desired direction. 

Pencil Suggestion of Vertical Gothic Letters and Numbers. 

35. Using Adams' letter plate 4 as a model, and with the 
pencil sharpened to a conical point, proceed to construct in 
guide line set 1, the suggested vertical Gothic capitals as 
given on Adams' letter plate 4, line 5. The horizontal top and 
bottom, and the vertical spacing guide lines are the only me- 
chanically drawn lines that are to be used. The suggestion 
of the alphabet is to be done free hand in order to train the 
hand and eye and also to fix clearly in the mind the character- 
istic features of each letter. Pay particular attention to the 
primary black masses of the letters as given in line 3 of the 
letter plate, and also to the way in which the letter *is formed 
from its primary mass as shown in line 7. 

36. In guide line set 2, suggest the vertical Gothic num- 
bers and small letters as given on Adams' letter plate 4, line 
6. Note especially the primary masses, line 8. Include the 
suggested form of the "&" in its proper space. 

Pencil Suggestion of Inclined Gothic Letters and Numbers. 

37. In guide line set 3, suggest the inclined Gothic cap- 
itals as given on Adams ' letter plate 4, line 13. Pay particular 
attention to the primary masses and to the development of 
the letters from their primary masses, lines 11 and 15 respec- 
tively. 

38. In guide line set 4 suggest the inclined Gothic num- 
bers and small letters as given on Adams' letter plate 4, line 
14. Include the suggested form of the "&" in its proper 
space. Note especially the primary masses and the develop- 



ment of the letters from their primary masses, lines 12 and IS 
respectively. 

Pencil Suggestion of Vertical Roman Letters and Numerals. 

39. In guide line set 5, suggest the vertical Roman cap- 
itals as given in line 3 letter plate 5, from A to Z inclusive. 
See letter plate 9 for the relation existing between the Roman 
letters and their vertical guide lines. 

40. In guide line set 6, suggest the vertical Roman num- 
bers from 1 to & inclusive, followed by the small letters as 
given in lines 3 and 7 respectively, of letter plate 5. 

Pencil Suggestion of Inclined Roman Letters and Numbers. 

41. In guide line set 7, suggest the inclined Roman cap- 
itals from A to Z inclusive as given in line 11 letter plate 5. 

42. In guide line set 8, suggest the inclined Roman num- 
bers from 1 to & inclusive, line 11, followed by the small letters 
as given in line 18 of letter plate 5. 

Ink Rendering of Suggested Letters. 

43. Using the Gillott 303 pen and drawing ink, complete- 
ly render in ink the letters A-D-I-M-Q-U-Y in guide line set 1, 
as given in line 1, letter plate 4. 

44. Completely render in ink, the numbers and letters 
1-5-9-b-f-j-n-r-v-z in guide line set 2, as given in line 2 letter 
plate 4. 

45. Completely render, in ink, the letters B-F-J-N-R-V-Z 
in guide line set 3, as given in line 9 letter plate 4. 

46. Completely render in ink, the numbers and letters 
2-6-0-c-g-k-o-s-w in guide line set 4, as given in line 10, letter 
plate 4. 

47. Completely render in ink, the letters C-G-K-0-S-W in 
guide line set 5, as given in line 1, letter plate 5. 



45 



Letteeinq — Study Plate 4 — Spacing 



48. Completely render in ink, the numbers and letters 
3-7-&-d-h-l-p-t-x in guide line set 6, as given in lines 1 and 5 
respectively, of letter plate 5. 

49. Completely render in ink, the letters D-H-L-P-T-X 
in guide line set 7, as given in liae 9, letter plate 5. 

50. Completely render in ink, the numbers and letters 
4-8-a-e-i-m-q-u-y in guide line set 8, as given in lines 9 and 15 
respectively, of letter plate 5. 

51. With the pencil eraser, clean off all pencil lines in 
the margin of the plate, between the border and trimming 
lines. Do not erase any of the construction lines inside of the 
border line. 

52. Remove the thumb tacks from the plate. Trim it 
with a sharp knife along the trimming line by using the back 
of the drawing board to cut upon, and the lower edge of the 
T-square blade as a guiding edge for the knife in following 
the pencil trimming line of the plate. HAND THE PLATE 
PROMPTLY TO YOUR INSTRUCTOR WHEN CALLED FOR 
AND DO NOT ROLL OR FOLD. 



SPACING OF LETTERS. 

The spacing of the letters in the alphabet is as much a 
problem in artistic design as is the construction of the letters 
themselves. In the construction of the letters the relations 
that exist between their height and width and between their 
black outlines and the enclosed white spaces must be so propor- 
tioned as not to cause any particular letter to stand out any 
more prominently than the rest. In the actual construction 
of an alphabet of letters, not only must the above relations 
be correctly balanced, but also the relation that exists between 
the black outlines of each two adjacent letters and the white 
space enclosed between them. This is necessary in order to 



make the alphabet, when viewed as a whole, present a uniform 
and pleasing appearance to the eye. 

The same principle holds true in the formation of letters 
into words, and of words into sentences, with the added re- 
quirement that the resulting combination can be easily read 
without eye fatigue. 

There are three methods of spacing: first, the equal area 
method ; second, the equal space method ; and third, a combina- 
tion of the two. 

The Equal Area Method of spacing letters, requires 
that the white space enclosed between the black outline of two 
adjacent letters must be equal to a similar area enclosed be- 
tween any other two adjacent letters of the alphabet or word 
as the case may be. In the use of this method, difficulties are 
encountered in the spacing of the A-F-J-L-T-V-W-X-Y-Z with 
the other letters of the alphabet. 

The Equal Space Method of spacing letters re- 
quires that equal spaces be kept between the extreme projec- 
tions of two adjacent letters. The same difficulty is experi- 
enced in the use of this method as was experienced in the use 
of the equal area method, as it gives good results only for cer- 
tain letter combinations. However, this method does correct 
some of the difficulties experienced in the use of the first meth- 
od, and therefore indicates that a combination of the two 
methods will give better results than the exclusive use of 
either one. 

The Combination of the Equal Area With the 
Equal Space method of spacing letters, gives excel- 
lent results in a majority of the letter combinations, but at the 
same time it cannot be laid down as a hard and fast rule. 
Those peculiar letter combinations to which the above rules 
do not apply must be spaced so that they will present a har- 
monious appearance with the remainder of the letters compos- 
ing the particular word in which they occur. It is very essen- 



Letteeeng — Mechanical Spacing — Use op Tables 



46 



tial for the draftsman to study the forms of the various letters 
and practice to become proficient in their spacing by eye 
rather than by the use of mechanical aids. In spacing letters 
it is the tendency of the beginner to make the spaces between 
his letters too large. A much better appearance will result 
from a close spacing. 



Mechanical Spacing. 

The Mechanical Spacing of letters is often desir- 
able. Especially is this the ease in the construction of titles 
and also in the construction of a line of words that is to fit into 
a certain specified distance. 

In devising a system of mechanical spacing it is necessary 
to keep in mind the fundamental principles underlying the 
construction and the spacing of the letters, in order to make 
the system available for general use. Obviously a mechanical 
spacing system which applies to a particular style of alphabet, 
will not apply to a different style. The mechanical method 
must in every instance give as good results in practice as the 
expert draftsman is able to obtain without its use. The task 
of devising such a system can be appreciated when it is re- 
membered that the 26 letters of the alphabet give 676 possible 
letter combinations each of which must be actually tested out 
in order to render the system of any practical use. 

The mechanical spacing tables I, II, and III, are given for 
use in the spacing of the Roman capitals, small letters and num- 
bers, as shown upon Adams' letter plates 9 and 11. Tables 
rV and V are given for use in the spacing of the Gothic num- 
bers and capitals as shown upon Adams ' letter plate 7. 

The Standard of Comparison used upon the above 
letter plates for the detailed construction of the letters is 



also used as the standard of reference for the spacing tables. 
This standard of reference, as previously mentioned, is the 
height of the letter, or the vertical distance included between 
the horizontal guide lines which limit the top and bottom parts 
of the letters. In order to make the standard really service- 
able, it is necessary to divide it into a number of equal parts, 
just as it is necessary to divide an inch into l-8ths, l-16ths, etc. 
As our most familiar unit of measure is the inch, the division 
of the lettering standard into equal parts is made to conform 
to its characteristic divisions. The standard is therefore di- 
vided into eight equal parts. One of these equal parts, that 
is l-8th of the height of the letters, is taken as the PRINCIPAL 
UNIT OF MEASURE instead of the entire height of the let- 
ters. All dimensions required in the actual construction of 
the letters are given both upon the letter plates and in the 
mechanical spacing tables, as whole or fractional parts of the 
PRINCIPAL UNIT OP MEASURE. 

In Spacing Roman Capitals, Followed by Small Letters, 

use the spacing distances as given in table VI. The method 
of using the mechanical spacing tables is taken up under the 
working methods for study plate 5, and also in the paragraph 
on the use of the tables as given in connection with them. 



The Use of the Mechanical Spacing Tables. 

The first table of the two given under Tables I and V 
together with Tables II, III, IV, and VI, shows the spacing 
distances between adjacent letters and numbers, as shown upon 
Adams' letter plates 7, 9, and 11. In using these tables to 
find the proper spacing distances between two letters or num- 
bers, look in the vertical column at the left of the table for 
the first of the two letters or numbers, and across the top of 
the table for the second. Find where the horizontal line con- 



Lettering — ^Mechanical Spacing Tables 



Letters 


A 


BDE 
FHIK 

LMN 
PRU 


CG 

OQ 
5 


J 


T 


V 


W 


X 


y 


z 




Letter Widths 
For Letters on 

ADAM5' LETTER PL9 


A 


'i 




e 


3 
4 





3 
6 


3 
4 


, 1 
' 4 


1 

4 


>4 


A 


a 


N 


7 


5DGR 


2i 


3-^ 


2^ 


|| 


a 


4 


^4 


, 1 
' Z 


3 
4 


'i 


B 


7 


O 


^4 


CEOQ3 


2 


3 


^k 


'i 


1 


2 


2^ 




1 
2 


£ 


G 


^i 


P 


7 


H 1 JMNU 


2| 


4 


3 


2 


^k 


^3 
^4 


3i 


3-^ 
^2 


p3 


^4 


D 


7 


Q 


^4 


K 


'i 


2| 


2 


3 
4 


3 


1 


'i 


, 1 
• 4 


1 

2 


1 


E 


7S 


R 


7 


L 


'i 


'^ 


1 


1 
2 


1 

"4 


1 
"4 


3 

a 


, 1 
' 4 


3 

'a 


1 
2 


F 


^i 


5 


7 


P 


3 
6 


2-^ 
^2 


' 4 





1 
2 


'^ 


2 


1 
2 


I 

4 


'4 


6 


^^ 


T 


^4 


FT 





2-^ 


1 


1 
'4 


1 
2 


1 
2 


'i 


, 1 
'4 


, 1 
' 4 


1 

2 


H 


7 


U 


7 


V 


3 

a 


"^4 


2 





•i 


'i 


2^ 


, 1 
'4 


. 1 
*4 


'i 


I 


a 


V 


a 


W 


3 
4 


^4 


^k 


3 


'i 


2i 


3 


2 


, 1 
'4 


2 


J 


3^ 


w 


lOg 


X 


'i 


^2 


2 


3 
4 


'i 


'i 


2 


, 1 
' 2 




1 


K 


7 


X 


a 


Y 


1 


2^ 


'^ 





'i 


'i 


a 


, 1 
' 4 


, 1 
*4 


I 


L 


7 


Y 


a 


Z 


1^ 


2^ 


2 


3 
4 


1 
2 


'i 


2 






1 
4 


M 


9^ 


z 


7 



Table I 
Mechanical Spacing Table for Roman Capital Letters. 
*See "Use of the Mechanical Spacing Tabled". 

47 



' Lettering— Mechanical Spacing Tables 



Letters 


ac 
de 


bfh 

km 

np 
r'u 


§: 


ii 


• 

J 


t 


vw 

XY 

z 


a 


yk 


a 


74 


52 


4i 


ei 


7 


beop5 


ek 


^i 


^1 


4| 


4 


6i 


ei 


c 


6 


6| 


ei 


4i 


^5 


^1 


5| 


dqu 


■7i 


8i 


7k 


5| 


4i 


s| 


7 


V 


H 


'^k 


4i 


2i 


1 

4 


^i 


4i 


g 


^i 


H 


^i 


5| 


4| 


ei 


e-2 


\mn 


y 




^i 


5^ 


4^ 


ei 


^1 


1 


5 


6 


^i 


3 


'1 


4 


4i 


* - 

J 


7 


7I 


-i 


^5 


4| 


6 


6^ 


k 


6l 


^1 


7i 


^i 


4 


6i 


^i 


r 


6 


^1 


64144 


^-k 


4^ 

^8 


6-^ 


*t 


4 


54 


A 1 i-:V 

4^ 3 


1 

£ 


4 


4 


vwxyz 


6i 


7 


4|4i 


3 


^e^4 



Table II 

Mechanical Spacing for Roman Small Letters. 

*For Exceptions See "Use of the Mechanical Spacing Tables". 

48 



49 



Lettering — Mechanical Spacing — Use of Tables 



taining the first of the two letters or numbers intersects the 
vertical column containing the second. The number given at 
their intersection, shows the distance in units that the two 
letters or numbers must be spaced apart. The second of the 
tables under Tables I and V gives the number which repre- 
sents the widths of the letters. 

The unit for spacing and for the widths of the letters is 
taken as 1-8 of the height of the letters. The numbers given in 
the tables and the dimensions given upon Adams' letter plates 
7, 9, and 11 are given as whole or fractional parts of this unit. 

The spacing dimensions taken from Tables I, III, IV, and 
V show the distance in units that the vertical guide lines, for 
adjacent Roman and Gothic capitals and numbers, (see Adams' 
letter plates 7 and 9), are to be spaced apart in order to give 
the proper spacing between adjacent letters and numbers. 




Fig:. 75.-Modified Spacing: Guides for X and Y. 

The spacing dimensions taken from Table II show the 
distance in units that the vertical centre lines, for the Roman 
small letters (see Adams' letter plate 11) are to be spaced 
apart in order to give the proper spacing between two adja- 
cent letters. 

The spacing dimensions taken from Table VI show the 
distance in units that the vertical centre line of a Roman small 
letter must be spaced from the vertical guide line of the pre- 
ceding Roman capital to give the proper spacing between the 
two letters. 



In spacing the Gothic and Roman X and Y in letter com- 
binations, the vertical spacing guides for these two letters are 
to be moved out and drawn thru the extreme horizontal pro- 
jections of the letters. Fig. 75, instead of as shown upon Ad- 
ams' letter plates 7 and 9. 

I'he numbers given in the spacing tables for these two 
letters, together with the numbers given in the second of the 
tables, under Tables I and V for the widths of these letters, 
are based upon this change. 

In spacing the Roman small letters, f-g-j-m-t-w and z, 
the spacing guides are to be taken as shown in Fig. 76, in 
place of the way shown on Adams' letter plate 11. The 
Roman small "i" and "1" are to be spaced according to their 
vertical centre lines in place of the way shown upon letter 
plate 11. In spacing the Roman small "w" and "m" in letter 
combinations, the distance between either and a preceding 
letter is measured from the centre line of the preceding letter 
to the centre line drawn thru the first half of these letters; 
while the spacing distance of a letter following either of these 
letters is measured from the centre line of the last half of 
these letters to the centre line of the following letter. In 
spacing the Roman small "u" after the "t", make the centre 
line distance between the two equal to 4%. In spacing the 
Roman small "f", when followed by m, n, p, r or u, make the 




J/^^^f^h-A-^^, 'retye^ 



Figr. 76.— Modified Center Line Spacing: Guides for the Roman Small Letters Shown. 



Lettering — Mechanicaij Spacing Tables 



Numerals 


Width of 
Numerals 

AO.LTPL-9. 


1 


2-3 


4 


5 


ea 

9-0 


7 


1 


3 

4 


4i 


^s 


2 


3 


^1 


2 


2 


e^ 


^1 


'i 


' a 


2 


25 


7 
6 


4 


6 


4i 


^i 


3 


3 


3 


2 


3 


64 


^8 


25 


1 ^ 

' 6 


2 


2i 


7 
& 


56590 


6^ 


3^ 


'i 


^ 5 


2 


2S 


i 


7 


6^ 


p5 
"^6 


'i 


5 
6 


'i 


5 
& 


•i 


8c 


S| 















Numerab 


Width of 
Numerals 

A0.tT.Pl:7 


1 


2-3 


4 


5 


6-a 

9-0 


7 


I 


3 
4 


2 


' 4 


1 


1 
' 2 


'4 


J 


2 


6-2 


1§ 


7 
8 


5 
8 




1 


1 
2 


4 


6 


2 


'g 


1 ^ 
1 4. 


' 2 


'1 


1 ^ 
'4 


5 


6^ 


'1 


i 


6 

a 




i5 


1 
2 


36690 


eg 


'1 


1 


3 
4 




1 


1 
2 


7 


61 


a 


3 
4 


< 
4 


7 

a 


7 
8 


1 
4 


8c 


S| 















Table III 

Mechanical Spacing Table for Roman Numbers. 

See "Use of the Mechanical Spacing Tables". 



Table IV 
Mechanical Spacing Table for Gothic Numbers. 
See "Use of the Mechanical Spacing Tables". 



50 



Lettering — Mechanical Spacing Tables 



Letters 


A 


BDE 
FHIK 

LMN 
PRU 


OQ 
5 


J 


T 


V 


W 


X 


y 


Z 


A 


5 
6 


1 ^ 


1 


3 
6 


1 
"4 





3 
8 


1 

4 


1 

■^2 


3 
4 


BDGR 


>k 


'1 


•i 


3 

4 


5 


i 
8 


'1 


3 
4 


3 
8 


7 
8 


CEOQ5 


1 


'5 


'^ 


5 
6 


1 

2 


1 


•i 


1 
2 


1 

4 


1 


HIJMNU 


1^ 


2 


•^ 


1 


'^ 


'i 


' 8 


'1 


1 ^ 


,3! 
' 8 


K 


5 


'i 


3 

4 


3 
8 





1 


5 
8 


1 

4 





1 
4 


L 


/ 
4 


3 
4 


1 
4 


1 
4 


5 
8 


1 





1 
4 


7 


1 

4 


P 





•i 


7 
S 


3 


1 
4 


3 
4 


1 


1 


1 

8 


3 
4 


FT 


3 


•^ 


1 
2 




1 
4 


1 
4 


i 
2 


1 


1 
4 


1 
4 


V 


O 


' 8 


1 


1 

'4 


1 

4 


5 
8 


'^ 


1 
2 


1 
4 


5 
8 


W 


3 


1 ^ 


'i 





1 
2 


'^ 


'i 


1 


1 
2 


1 


X 


1 
4- 


1 ^ 

' 4- 


1 


3 
8 


1 
4 


1 
2 


1 


3 
4 


1 
2 


1 
2 


Y 


I 


1^ 


3^ 
4 


3 



1 
4 


1 
4 


1 
Z 


1 

2 


1 
4 


1 
2 


Z 


3 
4- 


1^ 


1 


3 
8 


1 
4 


5 
8 


1 


1 
2 


1 
2 


1 
4 



Letter Widths 
For Letters on 

A0AM5'LET1E-K PL7 


A 


a 


N 


7 


B 


7 





7i 


C 


7^ 


P 


1 


D 


7 


Q 


^k 


E 


7 


R 


7 


F 


7 


5 


7 


6 


^^ 


T 


s| 


H 


7 


U 


7 


1 


3 
4 


V 


8 


J 


«1 


w 


.01 


K 


7 


X 


8 


L 


7 


Y 


8 


M 


^4 


z 


7 



Tatle V 

Mechanical Spacing for Gothic Capital Letters. 

See "Use of the Mechanical Spacing Tables". 

61 



Lettering — Mechanical Spacing Tables 



Letters 




bfh 
km 


i 1 


t 


^ 


• 

J 


vw 

XY 

Z 


A 


^k 


4i 


H 


^4 


^i 


"i 


3i 


BDGR 
CE 0Q5 


45 


4i 


H 




4i 


'i 


4 


HIJMNU 


^k 


5i 


H 


4 


Sf 


'i 


5 


K 


3| 


4| 


2| 


2| 


3i 


1 


4i 


L 


3i 


4i 


2i 


3i 


4| 


^1 


4 


P 


23 


4i 


H 


2 


4i 


2| 


3| 


FT 




4^ 


' 6 


2^ 

^8 


3| 


'i 


3| 


VWV 


2i 


5^ 


^1 


^i 


3 


2^ 


3 


xz 


•3i 


5^ 


^i 


Si 


4l 


2| 


4| 



Table VI 
Mechanical Spacing Table for Roman Capital Letters in Combination with Roman 

Small Letters. 

See "Use of the Mechanical Spacing Tables." 



52 



53 



Lettering — Mechanicax, Spacing — Construction of Titles 



spacing distance from the centre line of the "f " to the centre 
line of the following letter equal to 4 1-8. The vertical guide 
lines for the Roman capitals E, F and M are to be taken thru 
the outside of the vertical heavy stems instead of thru their 
centres, as given on Adams' letter plate 9. 

In every instance when a spacing number is given with 
a minus sign before it, the spacing distance for the following 
letter is to be laid off to the left of the spacing guide for the 
preceding letter. All the rest of the spacing distances are to 
be laid off to the right of the spacing guide for the preceding 
letter. 

In spacing the Roman capitals and numbers, remember 
that the vertical spacing guides do not pass thru the extremi- 
ties of the horizontal serifs, but through the extremities of the 
main body of the letter. 

Word Spacing. 

In Spacing Individual Words, or lines of words, 
the principles governing the spacing of the letters are to be 
applied. In most cases it is, however, sufficient to make the 
space between the words equal to the height of the letters. 
For words that are separated by commas, increase this distance 
by two units of height. The distance between the last letter 
of one sentence and the first letter of the next should be twice 
the distance used for spacing the adjacent words of either of 
the sentences. In spacing lines of words in a vertical direc- 
tion, it is necessary, for legibility, to make the distance be- 
tween the lines greater than the distance used between the 
words of each line. A good minimum distance is 1% times the 
height of the letter. 

Titles. 

Preliminary. Every drawing or sketch, as soon as it 
is made, should have a title placed upon it, in order to convey 



to every person, who has occasion to make use of it, a concise 
description of what it represents. The cost of the title should 
be adjusted to the elaborateness and importance of the draw- 
ing upon which it is placed. Large display maps and proposal 
drawings should have fine appearing titles, while shop draw- 
ings should have titles that are easily read as well as cheaply 
constructed. 

The Title should consist of : 

(a) The name of the particular kind of representation 
which the drawing is intended to show; as "Assembly" or 
"Detail Drawing"; "The Plan"; "The Front", "The Side", 
' ' The Rear Elevation " ; " First ", " Second ", or " Third Floor ' ' ; 
"Longitudinal" or "Transverse Section"; "Contour", "Topo- 
graphic ' ' or other map ; etc. 

(b) The name of the specific object which the drawing 
represents. 

(c) The name of the individual for whom the drawing 
is made. 

(d) The name of the individual who filled the order. 

(e) The address of the individual who filled the order. 

(f) The date of finishing the drawing. 

(g) The scale to which the drawing is made. 

(h) The name of the draftsman, the authorizer, and the 
approver of the drawing. 

(i) The contract number and the number of the drawing. 
These items may be rearranged to suit the particular needs 
of each ease, and the number of items to be included can be 
increased or decreased as desired. But in all instances, items 
(a-b-c-d-f-g) are to be included somewhere in the main title. 
Items (h-i) may be placed either as a part of the main title 
or separated from it, and placed in any other convenient part 
of the drawing. 

The Position of the Title on the drawing is a 
matter of individual judgment. It must, however, be placed 



Lettering — Construction op Titles — Study Plate 5 



54 



in a natural position so as to easily attract the eye of the ob- 
server. 

The Preliminary Make Up For a Title requires :- 

(a) That a concise description of the subject matter 
of the drawing be written down following the outline as pre- 
viously given. 

(b) That the description be separated into lines and 
arranged in some logical order, keeping in mind the amount 
of space available for the title. 

(e) That the lines to be emphasized should be placed 
either near the top or the center of the proposed title. 

(d) That the lines be arranged to as to make the final 
appearance of the title pleasing. This requires that the height 
as well as the length of each of the lines of words be modified 
to suit their particular locations in the title. 

A Pleasing Appearance can generally be obtained 
by making the title so that it can be enclosed in a diamond 
or elliptical shaped figure. In the preliminary design of a title 
the space available for it should be enclosed in some such 
outline as mentioned. The lengths of the various lines of 
words composing the title can then be measured, and the 
proper height of letters obtained which must be used to give 
the length of line required as explained under "Working 
Methods in Study Plate 5." The enclosing rectangle for each 
line of words can then be placed in its proper location, and the 
whole title balanced for a pleasing effect before a letter is 
drawn. Fig. 77, shows the preliminary design for the title plate, 
Fig. 79, for study plate 5. Roman letters should be used for 
the particular parts of the title which are to be emphasized. 



STUDY PLATE 5. 

Plate Analysis. This plate is designed to give practice in :- 

(a) The development of correct working methods, in 

the mechanical determination of the overall length of a line 



of letters when the height of the letters is given, and in the 
mechanical determination of the height of a line of letters 
when the length of the line is given. 

(b) In the placing and aligning of the drawing paper, 
in drawing the trimming and border lines, in inking the bor- 
der line, and in the rendering of the plate notation. 

(e) In the drawing of pencil guide lines for lettering, 
and in the construction of mechanical letter spacing scales. 

(d) In the preliminary determination of the line lengths 
of a series of words composed either of Roman capitals, of 
Roman capitals and small letters, of Gothic capitals, or of 
Roman numbers. 

(e) In the subsequent placing of the calculated length 
of line central with the centre line of the proposed title, the 
mechanical spacing of the letters and words, the preliminary 
suggestion of the letters, and the final rendering of their out- 
line in pencil. 

(f) In the finished rendering in ink of the letters, as out- 
lined in Pencil, with the Gillott 303 and ball point pens. 

The Size of the Finished Plate is to be 13%" x 193^". 

The Plate Requires a finished rendering in ink upon white 
"Normal" paper of the title shown in Fig. 79. 

The Equipment Required consists of drawing board, T- 
square, 15"x22" sheet of white "Normal" paper, thumb tacks, 
5H drawing pencil, architect's scale, pencil sharpener, bottle 
of ink, 30 x 60 degree triangle, ruling pen, fine point pen, ball 
point pen, pen holder, pen wiper, blotter, pencil eraser, ink 
eraser, and Adams' letter plates 7, 9 and 11. 



55 



Lettering — Study Plate 5 — ^Working Methods 



Working Methods. 

To Determine the Overall Length of a Given Line of Words 
When the Height of the Letters is Fixed. 

(a) Decide upon the style of letters to be used. 

(b) Turn to the mechanical spacing table given for the 
style of letter chosen. 

(c) Write down the letters composing the line of words 
upon a sheet of paper. Do not join the letters together but 
leave a space of approximately y^' between each letter, and 
double this space between each of the words. 

(d) Opposite each of the letters as written down, write 
down the number, representing their respective widths, taken 
from the proper mechanical spacing table. 

(e) Opposite each of the spaces between the letters and 
between the words, write down the number, representing 
their respective widths, as taken from the proper spacing 
table. Keep this line of numbers separated entirely from the 
line of numbers written in (d). 

(f) Add up the numbers, representing the widths of the 
letters, and write down their sum at the end of the line. 

(g) Add up the numbers, representing the widths of the 
spaces between the letters, and write down their sum at the 
end of the line. 

(h) Add the sum of the spaces to the sum of the letter 
widths, and write down the total sum. This last sum represents 
the total length of the line in units of height. 

(i) The exact length of the line can be found in inches 
by usiug the equation: 

H X S 

8 
where L equals length, in inches, of the word or line of words. 



H equals the distance, in inches, included between the 
horizontal guide lines, which limit the tops and bottoms of 
the letters composing the words. 

S equals the total number of units in the complete word 
or line of words, as found by summing up the numbers rep- 
resenting the letter widths and the spaces between the letters. 

Example: It is required to find the length of the first 
line "A COURSE IN" of the title on study plate 5, construct- 
ed of Roman capital letters, as called for upon the preliminary 
design sheet. Fig 77. The overall height of the letters is to 
be i/2"j which is the distance included between horizontal 
guide lines, limiting the tops and bottoms of the letters. The 
following procedure agrees with the above outline : 

(a) Roman capitals required. 

(b) See Mechanical Spacing Table I, 



(c) 


(d) 


(e) 


A 




8 


C 


74 


2i 





74 


3 


U 


7 


4 


R 


7 


24 


S 


7 


3 


E 


7f 


8 


I 


li 


4 


N 


7 





593 



341 



491 



PLATE 5. 




IV/W-' '"////'//V/ " y-' ", ^yV, 



PENNSYLVANIA 



STATE COLLELGE goth.c cap/^%% 



^Department of Dr/<vwing' ^'-roman small.;^ 



F^ 



ESTATE. COl. 



LE.GE, PA. ^/GOTHIC CAP. 



7777/. 



1912 'ROMAN. ^; 




Fig. 77. — Preliminary Design Sheet for Study Plate 5. 

56 



57 



Lettering — Study Plate 5 — ^Working Methods 



(f) 591 units total in the letters. 

(g) 34| units total in the spaces. 

(h) 941 units total in the entire line. 
Hx S 



(i) L = 



8 

ix94| 
8 



L = 5.91" or 51" long. 

To Determine the Height of a Given Line of Words When 
the Length of the Line is Fixed. 

(a) to (h). Follow steps (a) to (h) inclusive as given 
in the preceding problem, "To find the length of a given line 
of words when the height of the letters is fixed". 

(i) The exact height of the letters, or in other words, 
the distance that the horizontal guide lines, which limit the 
top and bottom parts of the letters, are to be spaced apart, 
can be found from the equation: 

8 x L 



H 



S 



where H equals height of the letters in inches. 

L equals length of the line of words in inches. 

S equals total number of units in the line of words as 
found by summing up the numbers representing the letter 
widths, and spaces between the letters. 

Example : It is required to find the height of the first line 
"A COURSE IN" of the title on study plate 5, constructed 
of Roman capital letters as called for on the preliminary de- 
sign sheet, Fig. 77. The overall length of the line is to be Syg"- 



The following procedure agrees with the above outline: 

(a) Roman capitals required. 

(b) See Mechanical Spacing Table I. 



(c) 
A 
C 

U 
R 
S 
E 
I 
N 



(d) 
8 

74 

74 

7 

7 

7 

7§ 

li 



(e) 

8 

2i 

3 

4 

24 

3 

8 

4 



591 



341 



(f) 

(g) 
(h) 



(i) H = 



591 units total in the letters. 
341 units total in the spaces. 
94§ units total in the entire line. 
8xL 



S 
8x5.875 



941 



letters. 



^ 94.625 

H = .49" or 4" the required height of the line of 



Lettering — Study Plate 5 — Schedule op Operations 



58 



Schedule of Operations. 

Placing and Aligning the Drawing Paper. 

1. Place the 15" x 22" sheet of "Normal" paper on the 
board, and with its long edges parallel to the long edges of 
the hoard, and with its top and left hand edges about 1" away 
from the corresponding edges of the board and approximately 
parallel to them. Insert a thumb tack in each of the four cor- 
ners. 

Drawing Trimming Line. 

2. With the T-square and drawing pencil, draw a light 
horizontal line the entire length of the plate, about ^" below 
its top edge. See layout sheet. Fig. 78. 

3. With the T-square, 30-60 degree triangle, and draw- 
ing pencil, draw a light vertical line the entire width of the 
plate and about 1" from its left hand edge. 

4. Using the edge of the scale which is divided into 
l-16ths, with its zero mark, over the point of intersection of 
the top and left hand trimming lines drawn in (2) and (3), 
lay off a distance of 19%" along the top trimming line, and 
13%" along the left hand trimming line. 

5. With the T-square and drawing pencil, draw a light 
horizontal trimming line the entire length of the plate thru 
the last point laid off in (4). 

6. With the T-square, 30-60 degree triangle, and drawing 
pencil, draw a light vertical line the entire width of the plate 
thru the first point laid off in (4). 

Drawing Border Line. 

7. With the scale and drawing pencil, lay off a distance 
of Ys" perpendicular to and inside of each of the four trimming 
lines just drawn. 

8. With the T-square and drawing pencil, draw light 
horizontal lines thru each of the points laid off perpendicular 



to the top and bottom trimming lines respectively. Start 
and stop these lines inside of the end trimming lines. 

9. With the T-square, 30-60 degree triangle, and draw- 
ing pencil, draw light vertical lines thru each of the points 
laid off, perpendicular to the end trimming lines. Start and stop 
these lines upon the top and bottom horizontal lines drawn in 
(8). 

Inking Border Line. 

10-14. For steps 10 to 14 inclusive, follow the correspond- 
ing steps in the outline for study plate 4. 

Plate Notation. 

15-17. For steps 15 to 17 inclusive, follow the correspond- 
ing steps in the outline for study plate 4, and note that this 
plate is number 5. 

Drawing Horizontal Pencil Guide Lines for Lettering. 

18. With the zero of the scale, placed over the upper 
left hand corner of the border line, point off along the left 
hand border line the dimensions given on the layout sheet 
Fig. 78, for the spacing of the horizontal lettering guide lines. 
Work from the top of the sheet downward and point off as 
many divisions as possible with one setting of the scale. 
Exercise care to get the distances exactly as called for. 

19. With the T-square and the 5H chisel edged pencil, 
proceed to draw thru these several points of division light 
horizontal guide lines the full length of the plate included 
between the two vertical lines forming part of the border line. 

20. With the scale lay off the point which will divide 
the bottom border line into two equal parts. 

21. With the T-square, 30-60 degree triangle, and 5H 
pencil, draw a light vertical line thru the point laid off in (20) 
the full width of the plate between the top and bottom border 






AJC 



r I ^ 



['H K 



"^ 



MK 



— ;i' 



s/^/^r. /<z, /y// 



«)« 






D^ 



"1^ 



:5x 



nK 



n 



31 



^ c 



"l^t 



TW^TT 



icn 



ES 






/^j" 



PLATE 5. 



n 



-i- 



t^/y/ TMo/ef:. y.s- c.f:—c' z^/f? ^o 



Fig. 78. — Layout Sheet for Plate 5. 
59 



Lettering — Study Plate 5 — Schedule op Operations 



60 



lines. This line will be the vertical center line of the plate 
and also of the title. 

Construction of Mechanical Spacing Scales. 

22. Upon the edge of a small piece of drawing paper, 
lay off the exact distance y^' i included between the horizontal 
guide lines for the top line of the title. With a very sharp 
pencil, carefully divide the distance laid off on the paper scale 
into 8 equal parts. Write upon the paper scale when finished, 
"For lines 1 and 6 of the title". Be very careful not to lose 
the paper scale. 

23. Proceed as in (22) to construct a paper scale for the 
second line of the title, which is to be 11-16" between hori- 
zontal guide lines. When finished, write upon it, "For line 

2 of the title". 

24. Proceed as in (22) to construct a paper scale for 
the third line of the title, which is to be 13-16" between hori- 
zontal guide lines. When finished, write upon it, "For line 

3 of the title". 

25. Proceed as in (22) to construct a paper scale for 
the fourth line of the title, which is to be 9-16" between hori- 
zontal guide lines. When finished, write upon it, "For lines 

4 and 5 of the title". 

26. Proceed as in (22) to construct a paper scale for 
the seventh line of the title, which is to be 7-16" between 
horizontal guide lines. When finished, write upon it, "For 
line 7 of the title." 

The Preliminary Determination of the Line Length of a 
Series of Words Composed of Roman Capital Letters, the Sub- 
sequent Placing of the Calculated Line Length Central With 
the Center Line of the Title, the Mechanical Spacing of the 
Letters and Words, the Preliminary suggestion of the Letters 
and the Final Rendering of Their Outline in Pencil. 



27. Upon a separate sheet of paper, set down in a line 
the letters composing the words of the first line of the title, 
Fig. 79. 

28. Using the Mechanical Spacing Table I, for the Roman 
capital letters, and following the outline given in the working 
methods for finding the length of a line of letters when the 
height is given, proceed to determine the exact length of the 
first line of the title in inches, as written down in (27). 
Leave a space of 8 units between the right hand vertical guide 
line of the last letter of the preceding word and the left hand 
vertical guide line of the first letter of the next word for all 
words composed of Roman capital letters. 

29. With the scale, lay off to the left of the vertical 
centre line of the plate and along the bottom horizon- 
tal guide line for the first line of the title, a distance equal 
to one half of the length of this particluar line as determined in 
(28) or 2-11". 

30. Using the paper scale as constructed in (22), for 
the first line of the title, and starting the line at the point 
laid off in (29), proceed to lay off to the right along the bot- 
tom horizontal guide line the distances called for upon the 
separate sheet upon which the letter widths and spacing dis- 
tances were first written down (27). This will have to be 
done very carefully and accurately as otherwise the line as 
laid off will come out longer than the calculated length. If 
this is the case, respace until it comes out within 1-8" of the 
distance as calculated. 

81. With the T-square, triangle, and drawing pencil, 
draw short, light, vertical guide lines thru the points of divi- 
sion in (28), to intersect both of the horizontal guide lines 



A COURSE IN 

* 

THE PRINCIPLES OF 

MECHANICAL DRAWING 

PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE 

Department of Drawing 

STATE COLLEGE, PA. 

1911-1912 



Fig. 79. — Study Plate 5. 
61 



Lettering — Study Plate 5 — Schedule op Operations 



62 



for the first line of the title. Along the first vertical guide 
line as drawn, lay off a distance of four units with the paper 
scale, measuring from the bottom horizontal guide line up 
towards the top horizontal guide line. With the T-square and 
pencil, draw a light, horizontal center line thru this point 
the entire length of the line of words as laid off, but not the 
entire length of the plate. 

32. Using Adams' letter plate 9 as a guide, pi'oceed to 
first suggest the letters in the first line of the title and then 
to render their finished outline. Make a judicious use of the 
paper scale to keep uniform the widths of the stems, the 
lengths of the serifs, and all other details of the various 
letters which can be laid off by its use. Remember that all 
of the dimension figures given upon the letter plate can be 
laid off from the paper scale. Do not make the pencil out- 
lines any heavier than absolutely necessary for good work. 
Do not fill in the heavy stems or spurs. In order to success- 
fully render the letters in ink, these precautions must be 
observed. Follow the notes as given in connection with the 
Spacing Table I, as well as the letter plate 9, in the actual 
construction of the letters. Note that the top of the A, and 
the top and bottom of the C-O-S extend beyond the horizontal 
guide lines. 

33. Proceed according to steps (27) to (32) inclusive, 
and draw in the pencil outlines for the second line of the title. 
Use the spacing scale, as constructed in (23), in laying off 
the letter widths and the spacing distances. The heights of 
the letters are to be 11-16". Note that the top and bottom 
of the C-O-S extend beyond the horizontal guide lines. 

34. Proceed according to steps (27) to (32) inclusive, 
and draw in the pencil outlines for the third line of the title. 
Use the spacing scale, as constructed in (24), in laying off 
the letter widths and the spacing distances. The heights of 



the letters are to be 13-16". Note that the top of the A, and 
the top and bottom of the C and G, extend beyond the hori- 
zontal guide lines. Unless the paper scale for this line is 
very accurately constructed, and the distances laid off from 
it in an accurate manner, it will be difficult to keep this line 
of the title from extending over the right hand border line. 
The Preliminary Determination of the Line Lengths of a 
Series of Words Composed of Gothic Capital Letters, the Sub- 
sequent Placing of the Calculated Line Letters Central With 
the Center Line of the Title, the Mechanical Spacing of the 
Letters and Words, the Preliminary Suggestion of the Letters, 
and the Final Rendering of Their Outline in Pencil. 

35. Proceed according to steps (27) to (32) inclusive, 
and draw in the pencil outlines for the fourth line of the title. 
Use the spacing scale as constructed in (25) in laying off the 
letter widths and the spacing distances. The height of the 
letters is to be 9-16". As this line is to be constructed of 
Gothic capitals, use Adams' letter plate 7 in conjunction with 
the Mechanical Spacing Table V, in place of the letter plate 
and spacing table for the Roman letters as called for in 
the above steps. Note that the top of the A, the bottom of the 
V, and the top and bottom of the S-C-O-G extend beyond the 
horizontal guide lines. The spacing distance between words 
constructed of Gothic capitals, is to be six units in place of 
the eight units called for in the above steps for the Roman 
letters. In the actual drawing of the letters be careful not 
to get the vertical guide lines confused when two adjacent 
letters have a negative spacing. In summing up the total 
units in the length of the line of words, be sure to subtract 
the sum of the negative numbers from the sum of the positive 
numbers to get the net actual length of the line in units. 

36. Proceed according to steps (27) to (32) inclusive, 
and draw in the pencil outlines for the sixth line of the title. 
Use the spacing scale as constructed in (22) in laying off the 



63 



Lettering — Study Plate 5 — Schedule of Operations 



letter widths and spacing distances. The height of the letters 
is to be 1/^". As this line is to be constructed of Gothic 
capitals, use Adams' letter plate 7 in conjunction with Mech- 
anical Spacing Table V, instead of the letter plate and spacing 
table for the Roman letters as called for in the above steps. 
Note those letters that extend beyond the horizontal guide 
lines. Space the words "State College" 6 units apart, and 
space the word "Pa." 8 units from the word "College". 
The comma and period are to be 2 units respectively from the 
ends of the preceding words. In drawing the actual letters, 
and also in finding the net actual length of the line, watch 
out for the negative spacing of some of the letter combina- 
tions. 

The Preliminary Determination of the Line Lengths of a 
Series of Words Composed of Roman Small Letters, the Sub- 
sequent Placing of the Calculated Line Length Central With 
the Center Line of the Title, the Mechanical Spacing of the 
Letters and Words, the Preliminary Suggestion of the Letters 
and the Final Rendering of Their Outline in Pencil. 

37. Upon a separate sheet of paper, set down on a line 
the letters composing the words of the fifth line of the title. 
Fig. 79. 

38. Using the Mechanical Spacing Table I, for the 
Roman capital letters, write down underneath the first let- 
ters of the words "Department" and "Drawing" their 
respective widths. 

39. Follow the numbers written down in (38), with the 
spacing distance for the right hand vertical guide line of the 
capital letter to the center line of the next following small 
letter in each of the words mentioned in (38). This distance 
is to be taken from Mechanical Spacing Table VI. 

40. Using the Mechanical Spacing Table II, for the 
Roman small letters, proceed to set down the center line 
spacing distances for each pair of adjacent letters in succession. 



Note that the table gives the spacing for the Roman small 
letters to their center lines in every case, and in this respect 
does not strictly adhere to the method for spacing some of 
these letters as given on letter plate 11. When the last letter 
of the first word is reached, write down, immediately follow- 
ing the center line spacing for that letter, the width (IV2) 
of the letter "t" from its center line to its right extremity 
Fig. 76. Follow this by the arbitrary width (51/2) for the 
space between the end of the "t" and the beginning of the 
"0" in "of" then by the width (2%), letter plate 11, of the 
space from the left extremity of the "0" to its center line, 
then by the width (7I/4) of the space between the center lines 
of the "0" and the "f". Table II, then by the width (I1/2) 
of the space between the center line of the "f" and its right 
extremity. Fig. 76, then by the arbitrary width (5i/2.) from the 
right extremity of the "f " to the left vertical guide line of the 
capital "D" of "Drawing", Proceed with the rest of the 
letters in the regular way up to the center line of the "g", 
then add the width (2%), letter plate 11, of the space be- 
tween the center line of the " g " and its right extremity. 

41. Add up the spacing numbers as written down in 
(40), to obtain the total units in the line. 

42. Using the equation j^ — H x S ^ as given in the 

o 

working methods, find the length of the line in inches. 

43. Follow procedure in step (29). 

44. Using the paper scale as constructed in (25), for 
the fifth line of the title, and starting the line at the point 
laid off in (43), proceed to lay off to the right, along the 
bottom horizontal guide line, the distances called for on the 
separate sheet upon which the spacing distances were written 
down, see (37) to (40) inclusive. 

45. With the T-square, triangle, and drawing pencil, 
draw short light vertical guide lines, thru the points of divi- 



Lettering — Study Plate 5 — Schedule of Operations 



64 



sion in (44), to intersect both of the horizontal guide lines for 
the fifth line of the. title. Along the first vertical guide line 
as drawn, lay off distances of 3 units, Avith the paper scale, 
measuring down from the top and bottom horizontal guide 
lines in each instance. Then with the T-square and drawing pen- 
cil, draw a horizontal guide line thru each of these points the 
entire length of the line of words as laid off, but not to extend 
the entire length of the plate. The horizontal line 3 units 
below the top horizontal gluide line is used to limit the tops 
of the small letters as well as the curved parts of both the 
"ascenders" and "descenders". The horizontal line 3 units 
below the bottom horizontal guide line is used to limit the 
bottoms of the "descenders". 

46. Using Adams' letter plate 9 as a guide, suggest 
the capital letter "D" of the first and last words, and then 
render their finished outline in pencil. Do not fill in their 
stems. 

47. Using Adams' letter plate 11 as a guide, suggest the 
small letters in pencil. Make a judicious use of the paper 
scale in order to keep uniform the widths of the letters, the 
widths of the stems, the extensions of the serifs, and all other 
details which can be laid off by its use. Follow the notes, 
given in connection with the use of the mechanical spacing 
tables, very closely as the actual construction of the letters 
progresses. 

The Preliminary Determination of the Line Lengths of a 
Series of Roman Numbers, the Subsequent Placing of the Cal- 
culated Line Length Central With the Center Line of the Title, 
the Mechanical Spacing of the Numbers, the Preliminary Sug- 
gestion of the Numbers, and the Final Rendering of Their Out- 
line in Pencil. 

48. Proceed according to steps (27) to (32) inclusive, 
and draw in the pencil outlines for the seventh line of the 



title. Use the spacing scale as constructed in (26) in laying 
off the number widths and spacing distances. The height 
of the numbers is to be 7-16". Use the Meehanica,l Spacing 
Table III instead of the one called for in the above steps for 
the Roman capitals. Leave a distance of 10 units between 
the "1911" and "1912", comprising the line. The dash is to 
be 2 units long and placed just above the horizontal center 
line of the numbers, and in the exact center of the space 
between the "1911" and "1912". 

The Finished Rendering in Ink of the Letters as Already 
Outlined in Pencil. 

49. With the Gillott 303 pen and black drawing ink, 
proceed very carefully, to outline the letters in the first line 
of the t\tle. Do not attempt to fill in either the stems or the 
spurs, until the letter outlines for the entire line have been 
inked completely, and are thoroughly dry. Then with the 
ball point pen proceed to fill in the stems. Do not use an 
excess of ink, but only enough to give a uniform black appear- 
ance to the whole letter. 

50. Proceed according to (49) for the second line. 

51. Proceed according to (49) for the third line. 

52. Proceed according to (49) for the fourth line. 

53. Proceed according to (49) for the fifth line. 

54. Proceed according to (49) for the sixth line. 

55. Proceed according to (49) for the seventh line. 

56. "With the pencil eraser, proceed to clean very care- 
fully all the white parts of the drawing. Do not under any con- 
ditions rub the eraser over the inked letters, as their sharp 
black appearance will be seriously marred. 

57. Remove the thumb tacks from the plate. Trim the 
plate along the pencil trimming line. HAND IT TO YOUR 
INSTRUCTOR WHEN CALLED FOR, AND DO NOT ROLL 
OR FOLD. 



i 



Study Plate 6— Lettering — Line Notation— Dimensioning. 



65 



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Study Plate 7— Use of T-square, Triangles, Practice in Detailing, Dimensioning and Tracing. 



PLATE. 7 




Study Plate 8— Use of T-Square, Triangles, Compass, Practice in Detailing, 

Dimensioning, and Tracing. 

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67 



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68 Study Plate 9— Use of French Curve, Compass, Practice in Accurate Geometrical Construction. 



PLATE 9 




GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION 

PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE 

DEPARTMENT OF DRAWING 



PiA/iABOlA 




i//iR/A3L£ ^F>/KAL 



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Study Plate 9A— Layout for Study Plate 9. 



69 




70 



Study Plate 10— Practice in Detailing, Dimensioning and Tracing. 




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Study Plate 11— Practice in Dimensioning, Detailing and Tracing. 



71 



PLATE. II 




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72 



Study Plate 12— Practice in Assembly Drawing and Tracing. 




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